Introduction to Immunology and Immunotherapeutics

What happens during the dysfunction of the immune system?

Dysfunction in the immune system can lead to various diseases and health conditions. This includes an increased susceptibility to infections, the development of allergies where the immune system overreacts to harmless substances, and the occurrence of autoimmune diseases in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues.

What is the purpose of secondary immune organs?

Secondary immune organs, such as lymph nodes, the spleen, and mucosal-associated lymphoid tissues, are crucial in the immune response. They serve as sites for the activation and proliferation of leukocytes (white blood cells), allowing them to monitor for pathogens and facilitate the development of an adaptive immune response.

What is the process of creating knockout mice?

The process of creating knockout mice involves sophisticated genetic engineering techniques. It starts with modifying DNA to replace specific normal genes with altered versions through a method called homologous recombination. These modified DNA sequences are then implanted into embryonic stem cells, which are injected into blastocysts and lead to the development of mice that lack the targeted gene, thus allowing researchers to study gene functions.

What is the significance of immune system receptors?

Immune system receptors play a critical role in the body's defense mechanism against pathogens. These specialized proteins on the surface of immune cells recognize foreign substances, known as antigens, enabling the immune system to detect and respond to infections by initiating various immune responses.

What is the function of B cells in the immune response?

B cells are responsible for producing antibodies in response to specific antigens. They play a crucial role in the humoral immunity component of the adaptive immune system.

How do natural killer (NK) cells contribute to immunity?

Natural killer cells are a type of lymphocyte that plays a role in the innate immune response by identifying and destroying cells that are infected or cancerous without the need for prior sensitization.

What is the complement system in the immune response?

The complement system is a group of proteins that work together to enhance the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism, promoting inflammation and cell lysis.

What are the main types of leukocytes?

The primary types of leukocytes include neutrophils, lymphocytes (B and T cells), monocytes (which differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells), eosinophils, and basophils, each playing distinct roles in immune responses.

What is the purpose of the blood-brain barrier in the immune response?

The blood-brain barrier is a selective permeability barrier that protects the brain from pathogens and toxins while maintaining the environment necessary for neuronal function, but it can complicate immune responses in the central nervous system.

How does inflammation benefit the immune response?

Inflammation is a beneficial response that occurs following injury or infection, characterized by redness, heat, swelling, and pain. It helps recruit immune cells to the affected area to initiate a healing response and fight pathogens.

What is the role of interferons in immunity?

Interferons are signaling proteins produced by virus-infected cells that help activate the immune response, warning neighboring cells and promoting the differentiation of immune cells.

What role does the thymus play in immune system development?

The thymus is a gland where T cells mature. It plays a critical role in immune system development during childhood, helping in the generation of a diverse and functional T cell repertoire.

What is the function of histamine in inflammatory responses?

Histamine is a chemical mediator released during allergic reactions and inflammation. It increases blood vessel permeability and causes vasodilation, leading to redness and swelling at the injury site.

How does autoimmunity occur?

Autoimmunity occurs when the immune system mistakenly recognizes the body's own cells as foreign, triggering an immune response that can lead to tissue damage and result in autoimmune diseases.

What is the function of regulatory T cells?

Regulatory T cells, or Tregs, maintain immune tolerance and prevent autoimmune responses by inhibiting other immune cells' activities, thus helping to regulate the immune response.

How do chemokines function in the immune response?

Chemokines are signaling molecules that direct the migration of immune cells to sites of inflammation or infection, playing a key role in coordinating the immune response.

What is the difference between active and passive immunity?

Active immunity results from the body’s own immune response to a pathogen or vaccine, leading to long-lasting protection. Passive immunity is conferred by antibodies acquired from another individual, providing temporary protection.

How do allergies develop?

Allergies develop when the immune system overreacts to harmless substances, termed allergens, leading to exaggerated immune responses that cause symptoms such as sneezing, itching, and difficulty breathing.

What is immunotherapy?

Immunotherapy is a medical treatment that uses the body's own immune system to fight diseases, particularly cancer, by enhancing or modifying immune responses or by providing immune system components.

What are monoclonal antibodies?

Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies that are identical and produced from a single clone of cells, designed to bind to specific antigens. They are used in diagnosis and treatment of various diseases, including cancer.

How does the body recognize self versus non-self?

The immune system recognizes self versus non-self through complex mechanisms involving major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules and T cell receptors, which differentiate between the body’s own tissues and foreign invaders.

What is the role of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)?

The MHC is a set of molecules displayed on cell surfaces that presents peptide fragments (derived from proteins) to T cells, playing a crucial role in distinguishing self from non-self.

How do vaccines provide long term immunity?

Vaccines prepare the immune system for future encounters with pathogens by stimulating the production of memory cells that can quickly respond to the actual pathogen upon future exposure.

What is antigen presentation?

Antigen presentation is the process where immune cells display foreign antigens on their surfaces using MHC molecules, allowing T cells to recognize and respond to these antigens.

What are cytokines and their role in the immune response?

Cytokines are small proteins secreted by cells that influence the behavior of other cells in the immune system. They play crucial roles in cell communication, regulating immune responses by promoting or inhibiting inflammation.

What role do eosinophils play in the immune response?

Eosinophils are white blood cells involved in combating multicellular parasites and are also crucial in mediating allergic reactions and asthma responses.

What is the function of basophils in the immune response?

Basophils are a type of white blood cell involved in allergic responses. They release histamine and other chemicals that contribute to inflammation and are recruited to sites of allergic reactions.

What is the significance of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)?

PAMPs are unique molecules found on pathogens that are recognized by the immune system's pattern recognition receptors, triggering innate immune responses.

What is the function of natural antibodies?

Natural antibodies are a type of antibody that can be found in the body without prior exposure to specific antigens. They provide a first line of defense and help in clearing pathogens.

How do lytic and lysogenic cycles differ in viruses?

The lytic cycle results in the destruction of the host cell and proliferation of viruses, whereas the lysogenic cycle integrates viral DNA into the host genome, allowing the virus to replicate without killing the host.

What is the role of the microbiome in immune health?

The microbiome consists of trillions of microorganisms residing in and on the body that play a crucial role in regulating the immune system, influencing immune responses, and protecting against pathogens.

What is herd immunity?

Herd immunity occurs when a significant portion of a population becomes immune to a disease, providing indirect protection for those who are not immune by reducing the overall spread of the disease.

What is the role of innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) in immunity?

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a group of immune cells that respond early to infections and tissue damage, contributing to innate immune responses and tissue repair.

What is the significance of the skin in the immune system?

The skin acts as a physical barrier that protects against pathogens and is also an active part of the immune system, containing specialized immune cells that respond to threats.

What is the purpose of autophagy in immune cells?

Autophagy is a cellular process that degrades and recycles cellular components, helping immune cells eliminate pathogens and maintain cellular homeostasis.

What is the function of the complement cascade?

The complement cascade is a series of protein activations in the immune system that enhances the ability to clear pathogens, promote inflammation, and directly lyse foreign cells.

What is the role of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)?

GALT is a component of the immune system located in the gastrointestinal tract that plays a critical role in the immune response against intestinal pathogens while maintaining tolerance to food antigens.

How does the cytokine storm affect the immune response?

A cytokine storm is an overproduction of immune cells and their activating compounds (cytokines), which can lead to excessive inflammation and tissue damage, often seen in severe infections.

What is immunosenescence?

Immunosenescence refers to the gradual deterioration of the immune system associated with aging, leading to increased susceptibility to infections, cancers, and autoimmune diseases.

How do pathogens evade the immune system?

Pathogens can evade the immune system through various mechanisms, such as altering their surface antigens, producing substances that inhibit immune responses, or hiding within host cells.

What is the role of preventive vaccines?

Preventive vaccines are designed to provide immunity against specific diseases by preparing the immune system ahead of potential pathogen exposure, effectively reducing the incidence of infections.

How does the body clear apoptotic cells?

The body clears apoptotic cells through a process called efferocytosis, where immune cells recognize and engulf dying cells, preventing inflammation and maintaining tissue homeostasis.

What is the role of C-reactive protein (CRP) in inflammation?

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a biomarker produced by the liver in response to inflammation. It helps in monitoring inflammatory conditions and is often elevated in the context of infections or chronic inflammatory diseases.

How do allergens trigger an immune response?

Allergens trigger an immune response by binding to IgE antibodies on the surface of mast cells and basophils, leading to the release of histamines and mediators that cause allergic symptoms.

What is the significance of serology testing in immune response?

Serology testing detects the presence of antibodies in the blood, helping to determine immune status, diagnose infections, and monitor vaccine responses.

How does stress impact the immune system?

Chronic stress can negatively affect the immune system by inhibiting the production and function of immune cells, leading to increased susceptibility to infections and slower recovery.

What is the significance of monoclonal antibody therapy in disease treatment?

Monoclonal antibody therapy is significant because it provides targeted treatment for diseases such as cancer and autoimmune disorders by specifically binding to certain antigens, enhancing therapeutic efficacy.

How does the body recover from an infection?

The body recovers from an infection through coordinated immune responses that include the elimination of pathogens, tissue repair, and the establishment of immune memory to protect against future infections.