detailed study guide

What are the main functions of the lymphatic system?

Returns excess fluid to the bloodstream, helps defend against infection, and absorbs certain fats from the digestive system.

What is lymph?

Fluid that travels through lymphatic vessels and contains white blood cells.

What do lymph vessels do?

Transport lymph throughout the body.

What can happen if lymph vessels become blocked?

Swelling called lymphedema.

What do lymph nodes do?

Filter lymph and trap bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances.

What do lymph nodes contain?

Immune cells.

What is the function of bone marrow?

Produces blood cells and many white blood cells.

What is the largest lymphatic organ?

Spleen.

What are the functions of the spleen?

Filters blood, removes old red blood cells, and helps fight infection.

What do tonsils do?

Protect against pathogens entering through the mouth and nose.

What are pharyngeal tonsils called?

Adenoids.

What is nonspecific (innate) immunity?

The body's first line of defense.

What are examples of innate immunity?

Skin, tears, mucous membranes, and phagocytic white blood cells.

What is specific (adaptive) immunity?

Immunity that targets specific pathogens.

What cells are important in adaptive immunity?

B cells, T cells, plasma cells, and antibodies.

What is natural active immunity?

Immunity from natural infection where the body makes antibodies.

What is natural passive immunity?

Antibodies passed from mother to baby.

What is artificial active immunity?

Immunity gained through vaccination.

What is artificial passive immunity?

Receiving antibodies from another source.

What are the major functions of the digestive system?

Ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination.

What is mechanical digestion?

The physical breakdown of food.

What are examples of mechanical digestion?

Chewing and stomach churning.

What is chemical digestion?

The chemical breakdown of food using enzymes and acids.

What is the purpose of chemical digestion?

To convert food into absorbable molecules.

What are the functions of the stomach?

Stores food and mixes it with digestive juices.

What is chyme?

A semi-liquid mixture of food and digestive juices.

What is the fundus?

The upper portion of the stomach.

What can happen to the fundus after eating?

It can become distended.

What are the functions of the liver?

Produces bile, processes nutrients, and detoxifies substances.

What is bile?

A substance that emulsifies fats.

What does bile do to fats?

Breaks large fat droplets into smaller droplets.

What is the main function of the small intestine?

Nutrient absorption.

What are the three sections of the small intestine?

Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum.

What is the order of the small intestine sections?

Duodenum → Jejunum → Ileum.

What are the main functions of the large intestine?

Absorbs water and forms feces.

What is the pathway through the large intestine?

Cecum → Ascending colon → Transverse colon → Descending colon.

What is the mnemonic CATD?

Cecum → Ascending → Transverse → Descending.

What are the main functions of the respiratory system?

Move air, exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide, warm and humidify air, filter contaminants, and smell.

What structures make up the upper respiratory tract?

Nose, pharynx, and larynx.

What structures make up the lower respiratory tract?

Trachea, bronchi, and lungs.

What are the divisions of the pharynx?

Nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.

What structures are found in the larynx?

Vocal cords, thyroid cartilage, and epiglottis.

What structure is NOT part of the larynx?

Eustachian tube.

How many lobes does the right lung have?

3 lobes.

How many lobes does the left lung have?

2 lobes.

Why does the left lung have only 2 lobes?

To make room for the heart.

What is pulmonary ventilation?

The movement of air into and out of the lungs.

What is inspiration?

Air moves into the lungs.

What is expiration?

Air moves out of the lungs.

What is external respiration?

Gas exchange between the lungs and blood.

What is internal respiration?

Gas exchange between the blood and body cells.

What structures primarily control respiration?

Medulla and pons.

What do the medulla and pons regulate?

Breathing rate and depth.

What are the main functions of the urinary system?

Remove waste, maintain fluid balance, maintain electrolyte balance, regulate blood pressure, and maintain acid-base balance.

What wastes are removed by the urinary system?

Urea and creatinine.

Which electrolytes are especially regulated by the urinary system?

Sodium and potassium.

What is the function of the kidneys?

Filter blood and make urine.

What is the function of the ureters?

Carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

What is the function of the bladder?

Stores urine.

What is the function of the urethra?

Carries urine from the bladder to outside the body.

What is the functional unit of the kidney?

Nephron.

What is the nephron responsible for?

Urine formation.

Where does filtration occur in the kidney?

Glomerulus.

What happens during filtration?

Blood is filtered.

What is reabsorption?

The movement of useful substances from filtrate back into the blood.

What substances are commonly reabsorbed?

Water, glucose, and electrolytes.

What is the function of the Loop of Henle?

Concentrates urine and reabsorbs water and electrolytes.

What hormone produced by the kidneys helps regulate blood pressure?

Renin.

What does erythropoietin (EPO) do?

Stimulates red blood cell production.

What is calcitriol?

The active form of Vitamin D.

What are the characteristics of normal urine?

Clear, transparent, and pale yellow.

What urine color may indicate dehydration?

Dark yellow or amber-colored urine.

What is oliguria?

Decreased urine output.

What urine output is considered oliguria?

Less than 400 mL/day.

What is normal urine output?

About 30 mL/hour.

What is creatinine?

A waste product produced from muscle metabolism.

What may elevated creatinine levels indicate?

Kidney dysfunction or dehydration.

What is urea?

A waste product made in the liver through the urea cycle.

What is the purpose of the urea cycle?

To convert toxic ammonia into urea.

How is urea removed from the body?

Excreted by the kidneys.

What is dialysis?

A treatment that artificially filters blood and replaces some kidney functions.

What is a kidney transplant?

The implantation of a healthy donor kidney into a patient.

What are the key lymphatic structures to memorize?

Lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow.

What digestive terms should be memorized?

Chyme, bile, Duodenum → Jejunum → Ileum, and Cecum → Ascending → Transverse → Descending.

What respiratory concepts should be memorized?

Upper vs lower respiratory tract, external vs internal respiration, inspiration vs expiration, and right lung 3 lobes vs left lung 2 lobes.

What urinary system structures should be memorized?

Kidney → Ureter → Bladder → Urethra.

What kidney physiology terms should be memorized?

Nephron, glomerulus, Loop of Henle, renin, erythropoietin, calcitriol, creatinine, and urea.

What is the urine output definition of oliguria?

Less than 400 mL/day.