intro to psychology

When are we engaging in evidence-based behavior modifications?

When we change our behavior based on evidence

Good science is ______ based

evidence based

What are the steps in the scientific process?

What is bystander apathy?

social psychological theory that states that individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim in the presence of other people

What is a hypothesis?

A specific prediction about some phenonmen or other that often takes the form an “If-Then’ statement: “In an emergency, IF multiple bystanders are present, THEN the likelihood that any one bystander will intervene is reduced.”

What is a theory?

A set of formal statements that explains how and why certain events are related to one another.

True or False: the scientific process becomes self-correcting

True

What are the two approaches to understanding behaviour?

Hindsight (After-the-Fact Understanding) and understanding through prediction, control, and theory building

What is the major limitation of relying solely on hindsight?

Past events usually can be explained in many ways, and there is no sure way to know which - if any - of the explanations is correct

What does “Post hoc” mean?

after the event (another way to say hindsight reasoning)

What does “ergo” mean?

“and so, or therefore”

What does “propter hoc” mean?

“resulting from the event”

Despite the drawbacks of hindsight reasoning, it can _______.

it can provide insights and is often the foundation on which further scientific inquiry is built.

What is understanding through prediction?

If we truly understand the causes of a given behavior, then we should be able to predict the condition under which that behavior will occur in the future

example of this is the bystander example from the book. The researchers staged an experiment and their prediction was supported.

Which is the strongest test of scientific understanding?

Theory building, because good theories generate an integrated network of predictions

What is the law of parsimony?

If two theories can explain and predict the same phenomenon equally well, the simpler theory is the preferred one

True or False: Even when a theory is supported by many successful predictions, it is never to be regarded as an absolute (always happens) truth.

True, there is always the possibility that some future observation will contradict a theory or a newer, more accurate theory will take its place.

What is a variable?

Any characteristic or factor that can vary

Operational definition

defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to produce or measure it

• translate abstract terms into something observable and measurable that the rest of the scientific community can understand clearly

• must be able to measure it

What is psychology?

The scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes

If a test is inconsistent, what should you modify?

You should modify the hypothesis

If your test is consistent, it can inform your current ______.

Your current theory

What is a probabilistic science?

psychology medicine (a “probably, but not 100% sure science)

What is a deterministic science?

chemistry

What is statistical reasoning?

Not totally sure but training is psychology and medicine (probabilistic sciences) improves statistical reasoning

What is methodological reasoning

Not totally sure but training is psychology and medicine (probabilistic sciences) improves methodological reasoning

What are the two important parts of a good theory?

• generates falsifiable hypotheses

• is parsimonious

What does parsimonious mean?

If there are two different reasonings that explain a concept, choose the simpler one

What is conditional reasoning?

What is a cross-sectional design?

Comparison of scores first years compared to scores third-years

What is a longitudinal design?

comparison of scores in first year to scores in third year

What is Occam’s Razor?

The principle (attributed to William of Occam) that in explaining a thing no more assumptions should be made than are necessary

• relates to parsimony

What does falsifiable mean?

The theory makes sufficiently precise predictions that we can at least imagine evidence that would contradict the theory

i.e. specific enough claim to dispute

What is parsimony?

scientists prefer the theory that explains the results using the simplest solutions

Who was Nostradamus and how was he related to falsifiability?

• famous for finding ways to predict the future

• also famous for false and vague predictions, which make his predictions more ambiguous and less falsifiable, and therefore more likely to be correct

What observations would falsify the theory of evolution?

Anything that would contradict the basic principles of evolution, such as variation, heritability, and selection. For example, fossil record contradictions, lack of genetic similarities, etc

What was the Clever Hans example?

refers to a psychological phenomenon where an animal or person can sense what someone wants them to do, even without being given explicit signals

What are observational studies and what are the three types?

Observing, not manipulating factors

Three types: case history, naturalistic observations, and correlational study

What is a case history?

a thorough description of one unusual person

What is a naturalistic observations?

a careful examination of behavior under natural circumstances

What is a correlational study?

a procedure in which investigators measure the correlation between two variables without controlling either of them

ex. use of contraception correlated to # of toasters in the home

What is anterograde amnesia?

is when your brain can’t form new memories from what you’re experiencing right now. In extreme cases, you permanently lose the ability to learn or retain any new information

• similar to korsakoff

What is the cognitive dissonance theory?

refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors

ex. when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition), they are in a state of cognitive dissonance

What is the letter that stands for positive correlation coefficient?

r

What is the third variable problem?

occurs when an observed correlation between two variables can actually be explained by a third variable that hasn’t been accounted for

What is a variable?

any characteristic or factor that can vary

What is an Operational definition?

a definition that specifies the operations or procedures used to produce or measure something

What is a population vs a sample?

population: the entire group of individuals to be considered

sample: the individuals that are actually studied

What is the difference between random vs. representative sampling?

Random: every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected

Representative: the sample resembles the population (in its percentage of males vs females, etc)

What are experiments and what are the different types?

Experiments are observing and manipulating key factors.

Between subject design: compare treatment

Basic research

Reflects the quest for knowledge purely for its own sake

What is applied research?

Designed to solve specific I