AP Psychology Unit 3 (Part 1)

Zygote

A fertilized egg

Embryo

The initial stage of development for a multicellular organism

Fetus

The stage of prenatal development after the embryo stage; begins at nine weeks for humans

Teratogens

Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their birth mother’s heavy drinking during pregnancy; in severe cases, symptoms include a small, out-of-proportion head and distinct facial features

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner; used by researchers to explore newborns’ abilities

Infant Reflexes

Newborns have certain inborn automatic reflex responses ideally suited for our survival (e.g. rooting, sucking, and moro reflexes)

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to consciously recall most memories from before age 4; occurs because our brain’s memory pathways are not fully developed when we’re young

Jean Piaget

Developed a cognitive developmental theory on how our cognition develops in stages as we mature

Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)

Piaget’s first cognitive development stage (birth to 2 years); infants know the world through sensory impressions and motor activities; object permanence develops during this stage

Preoperational Stage (Piaget)

Piaget’s second cognitive development stage (2 to 6/7 years); a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic; egocentrism dominates their perspective; symbolic thinking develops during this stage

Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)

Piaget’s third cognitive development stage (7 to 11 years); the stage at which children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete (actual, physical) events; can perform basic arithmetic operations; conservation is mastered at this stage

Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)

Piaget’s fourth and final cognitive development stage (12+ years); the stage at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts; learn to deduce consequences

Object Permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Conservation

The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Egocentrism

In Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

Theory of Mind

People’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by limitations in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors; lack understanding of theory of mind

Attachment

An emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation; Harlow’s monkey studies showed that physical affection is an important part of attachment; Ainsworth’s strange situation showed that responsive mothers generally had children who display secure attachment, and unresponsive ones usually had children who display insecure attachment

Secure Attachment - demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return

Insecure Attachment - demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness

Critical Period

An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life

Self-concept

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

Gender Role

A culture’s set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and for women

Gender Identity

Our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and female, regardless of whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth, and the social affiliation that may result from this identity

Sexual Orientation

A person’s sexual and emotional attraction to another person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction

Emerging Adulthood

A period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many persons in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

Identity v. Role Confusion

In Erik Erikson’s theory, the adolescent’s task is to work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity (or they become confused about who they are)

Social Clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Parenting Styles

Authoritarian - coercive; impose rules and expect obedience

• children with less social skill an self-esteem

• overreacts when they make mistakes

Permissive - unrestraining; make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment

• children who are more aggressive and immature

Neglectful - uninvolved; neither demanding nor responsive; careless, inattentive, and does not seek a close relationship with their children

• children with poor academic and social outcomes

Authoritative - both demanding and responsive; exert control by setting rules, but, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions

• children with the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, self-regulation, and helpfulness

Recognition and Recall with Age (Memory)

As we age, our recognition remains stable, but our recall declines

Grief and Coping

• People do not go through identical predictable stages of grief

• Bereavement therapy is not significantly more effective than grieving without such aid

• Those actually facing imminent death due to terminal illness are more positive and less sad and despairing than one would imagine

Life Satisfaction across Lifespan

Positive feelings, supported by enhanced emotional control, tend to grow after midlife, and negative feelings subside

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

WIP