Training and Conditioning Exam #3

Mode

-Lower body plyometrics

-Upper body plyometrics

*Medicine ball throws, catches, several types of push-ups

-Trunk Plyometrics

Periodization

A theoretical and practical construct that allows for the systematic, sequential, and integrative programming of training interventions into mutually dependent periods of time in order to induce specific physiological adaptations that underpin performance outcomes.

General Adaptation Syndrome

One of the foundational concepts from which periodization theories have developed

-Alarm

-Resistance

-Exhaustion

Alarm

Initial stress/Stimulus applied

-Dependent on magnitude can last hours or days

Resistance

Adaptation occurs, leads to an increase in overall performance

Supercompensation

Part of resistance- increase in performance level

Exhaustion

Overtraining

-Stress continuously applied in inappropriate manner

Stimulus Fatigue Recovery Adaptation Theory

-An extension of the GAS suggesting that training stimuli produce a general response

-The greater overall magnitude of a workload, the more fatigue accumulates and the longer the delay before complete recovery so that adaptation can occur

Fitness Fatigue Paradigm

-Every training bout creates both fitness and fatigue which summate to create preparedness

-High training loads result in both elevated fatigue and fitness levels

-Low training loads result in minimal fitness or fatigue

-Faitgue dissipates faster than fitness and therefore allows for elevated preparedness with use of appropriate training strategies

Periodization Periods

-Periodized training plans systematically shift training foci from general nonspecific activities of high volume and low intensity toward activities of lower volume and higher intensities over a period of many weeks or months to help reduce the potential for overtraining while optimizing performance capacities

Macrocycle

-The largest division of the periodization model

-Typically an entire training year but can also be a period of many months or as much as four years (for olympic athletes)

Mesocycles

-Two or more cycles within the macrocycle

-Each last several weeks to several months

-Number depends on goals of the athlete as well as the number of competitions contained within the period

Microcycles

-Two or more of these within a mesocycle

-Typically one week long but could last up to four weeks depending on the program

-Focuses on daily and weekly training variations

Periodization involves

shifting training priorities from non-sport-specific activities of high volume and low intensity to sport-specific activities of low volume and high intensity over a period of many weeks to prevent overtraining and optimize performance

Conventional Periodization Model

-Preparatory

-First Transition

-Competition

-Second Transition

Novice Model

Intensity begins lower and gradually increases, while volume starts higher and slowly decreases

Advanced Model

Similar to novice model, except their volume and intensity assignments are consistently higher and fluctuations are smaller

Preparatory Phase

-Usually the longest mesocycle; occurs when there are no competitions and only a number of sport specific practices

-Major emphasis: developing a base level of condition to prepare for more intense training

-As this period progresses, microcycles are designed to gradually increase WT loads and sport-conditioning intensity; decrease training volume and start to give more attention to sport technique training

-3 Main Phases: Hypertrophy/Endurance, Basic Strength, Strength/Power

Hypertrophy/Endurance Phase

-May last 1-6 weeks; training begins at lower load with high volume

-Goals: Increase LBM and develop an endurance base for more intense training in other phases

-Training activities may not be highly "sport-specific" in the early part of this phase

-The last part of this phase typically includes an intermediate "recovery week"

Basic Strength Phase

-Aims to increase the strength of muscles essential to primary sport movements

-WT program becomes more sport specific and involves heavier loads for fewer reps than last phase

Strength/Power Phase

-If doing interval or speed training, it may intensify to near competitive pace, specific speed training drills are used, and plyometric drills mimic sprinting

-Resistance training involves performing power/explosive exercises at high loads and low volumes

-75-95% of 1 RM and 3-5 sets of 2-5 reps

First Transition Period

-This period is shorter than it looks in the graphs

-Meant to delineate the break between high-volume and high-intensity training

-Sport-specific skill training begins to increase while time devoted to WT begins to decrease

-May be an "active rest" week at the start of this period to allow mental and physical transition into the preseason from the offseason

Competition Period

-Goal: to peak strength and power through further increases in training intensity with additional decreases in training volume

-Practice in sport skills and strategy increases dramatically as time spent specifically on physical conditioning decreases in proportion

-May require some periodic manipulation of intensity on a weekly basis to correspond to competition

-Only allows peak for ~ 3 weeks and trying to extend this will overtrain

-Goal of strength coach is maintenance

-Peak: Greater than or equal to 93% of 1RM for 1-3 sets of 1-3 reps

-Maintenance: ~80-85% of 1RM for 2-3 sets of 6-8 reps

Second Transition Period

-Occurs between the competitive season and the next macrocycle's preparatory phase

-Lasts 1-4 weeks depending on how stressful/long the season was

-Focuses on unstructured, non-sport specific recreational activities performed at low intensities with low volume

-Allows time to rehab injuries and to rest both physically and mentally

-May include some WT but it should be infrequent and relatively easy

Undulating Models

-Involves large daily fluctuations in load and volume assignments for core exercises

-Research is mixed as to whether this approach is better than linear approach but it appears to be at least as good

-One concern is high intensities on each day may lead to overtraining

Linear

Traditional resistance training periodization model with gradually progressive mesocycle increases in intensity over time

Undulating or Nonlinear

A periodization model alternative that involves large fluctuations in the load and volume assignments for core exercises

Mechanical Model of Plyometric Exercise

-Elastic energy in the musculotendinous components is increased with a rapid stretch and then stored

-If a concentric muscle action follows immediately, the stored energy is released, increasing the total force production

Mechanical Model of Skeletal Muscle Function

-The series elastic component when stretched stores elastic energy that increases the force produced

-The contractile component is the primary source of muscle force during concentric muscle action

-The parallel elastic component exerts a passive force with unstimulated muscle stretch

Series Elastic Component

when stretched, stores elastic energy that increases the force produced

Contractile Component

the primary source of muscle force during concentric muscle action

Parallel Elastic Component

exerts a passive force with unstimulated muscle stretch

Neurophysiological Model of Plyometric Exercise

-Involves potentiation of the concentric muscle action by use of the stretch reflex

-Stretch reflex is the body's involuntary response to an external stimulus that stretches the muscles

Stretch Reflex

-When muscle spindles are stimulated, the stretch reflex is stimulated sending input to the spinal cord via Type 1a nerve fibers

-After synapsing with the alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord, impulses travel to the agonist extrafusal fibers, causing a reflexive muscle action

Stretch Shortening Cycle

-Employs both the energy storage of the SEC and stimulation of the stretch reflex to facilitate maximal increase in muscle recruitment over a minimal amount of time

-A fast rate of musculotendinous stretch is vital to muscle recruitment and activity resulting from the SSC

Design Components of Plyometric Training Programs

-Needs analysis

-Mode

-Intensity

-Frequency

-Recovery

-Volume

-Program Length

-Progression

Needs Analysis

-Athletes must be evaluated for their sport, sport position, training status

-By understanding each sport's requirements, the positions within the sport, and the needs of each athlete, the strength and conditioning professional can design a safe effective plyometric training program

Lower Body Plyometrics

-Appropriate for virtually any athlete and any sport

-Direction of movement varies by sport but many sport require athletes to produce maximal vertical or lateral movement in a short amount of time

-Wide variety of lower body drill with various intensity levels and directional movements

Upper Body Plyometrics

-Medicine ball throws

-Catches

-Several types of push-ups

Trunk Plyometrics

-Exercises for the trunk may be performed "plyometrically," provided that movement modifications are made.

-Specifically, the exercise movements must be shorter and quicker to allow stimulation and use of the stretch reflex.

Intensity

-Plyometric intensity is the amount of stress placed on muscles, connective tissues, and joints

-It is controlled primarily by the type of plyometric drill

-Generally, as intensity increases, volume should decrease

Frequency

-Typical recovery time guideline: 42-72 hours between plyometric sessions

-Using these typical recovery times, athletes commonly perform two or three plyometric sessions per week

Recovery

-Recovery for depth jumps may consist of 5-10 seconds of rest between reps and 2-3 minutes per set

-The time between sets is determined by a proper work-to-rest ratio and is specific to the volume and type of drill being performed

-Drills should not be thought of as cardiorespiratory conditioning exercises but as power training

-Drills for a given body area should not be performed two days in succession

Volume

-For lower body drills, this is expressed as foot contacts per workout (or distance for bounding drills)

-For upper body drills, this is expressed as the number of throws or catches per workout

-Recommended lower body values vary for athletes with different levels of experience

Program Length

-Most programs range from 6 to 10 weeks however vertical jump height improves as soon as 4 weeks after the start of a plyometric training program

Progression

-Must follow the principles of progressive overload (Systematic increase in training frequency, volume, and intensity in various combinations)

Warm-Up

Must include a:

-General Warm-up

-Stretching

-A specific warm-up

Specific warm-up should consist of low-intensity, dynamic movements

Adolescent Age Considerations

-Consider both physical and emotional maturity

-Primary goal is to develop neuromuscular control and anaerobic skills that will carry over into adult athletic population

-Gradually progress from simple to complex

-Recovery time between should be a minimum of 2 or 3 days

Older Age Considerations

-Program should include no more than 5 low to moderate intensity exercises

-Volume should be lower (Should include fewer total foot contacts than a standard plyometric training program

-The recovery time between workouts should be 3 or 4 days

Plyometric Exercise and Resistance Training

-Combine lower body resistance training with upper body plyometrics, and upper body resistance training with lower body plyometrics.

-Do not perform heavy resistance training and plyo-metric exercises on the same day.

-Some advanced athletes may benefit from complex training, which involves intense resistance training followed by plyometric exercises.

Plyometric and Aerobic Exercise

-Because aerobic exercise may have a negative effect on power production, it is advisable to perform plyometric exercise before aerobic endurance training.

Pretraining Evaluation of the Athlete

-Technique

-Strength

-Physical Characteristics

-Balance

Technique

-Before adding any drill, the strength and conditioning professional must demonstrate proper technique to the athlete

-Proper landing technique is essential to prevent injury and improve performance in lower body plyometrics

Proper Plyometric Landing Position

-The shoulders are in line with the knees, which helps to place the center of gravity over the body's base of support.

-The knees are over the toes; excessive inward (valgus) movement increases the athlete's risk of lower extremity injury.

Strength

-For lower body plyometrics, it was previously thought that the athlete's 1 RM squat should be at least 1.5 times their body weight but technique may be a more important consideration

Physical Characteristics

-Athletes who weigh more than 220 lbs may be at an increased risk for injury when performing plyometric exercises

-Further athletes weighing over 220 lbs should not perform depth jumps from heights greater than 18 inches

Balance

-Each test position must be held for 30 seconds. Tests should be performed on the same surface used for drills

-An athlete beginning plyometric training for the first time must stand on one leg for 30 seconds without falling

-An athlete beginning an advanced plyometric program must maintain a single-leg half squat for 30 seconds without falling

Equipment and Facilities

-Landing surface

-Training area

-Equipment

-Proper footwear

-Supervision

-Depth Jumping

Landing Surface

-To prevent injuries the landing surface used for lower body plyometrics must possess adequate shock-absorbing properties

-A grass field, suspended floor, or rubber mat is a good surface choice

Training Area

-The amount of space needed depends on the drill

-Most bounding and running drills require at least 30 m of straightaway though some drills may require a straightaway of 100 m

-For most standing box and depth jumps, only a minimal surface area is needed but the ceiling height must be 3 to 4 in order to be adequate

Equipment

-Boxes used for box jumps and depth jumps must be sturdy and should have nonslip top

-Boxes should range in height from 6 to 42 inches

-Boxes should have landing surfaces of at least 18 but 24 inches

Proper Footwear

-Ankle and foot support

-Lateral stability

-A wide, nonslip sole

Supervision

Closely monitor athletes to ensure proper technique

Depth Jumping

-The recommended height for depth jumps ranges from 16 to 42 inches with 30 to 32 inches being the norm

-Depth jumps for athletes who weigh over 220 pounds should be 18 inches or less

Speed

The skills and abilities needed to achieve high movement velocities

Change of Direction

The skills and abilities needed to explosively change movement direction, velocities, or modes

Agility

The skills and abilities needed to change direction, velocity, or mode in response to a stimulus

Speed .vs. Agility

Speed requires the ability to accelerate and reach maximal velocity, agility requires the use of perceptual cognitive ability in combination with the ability to decelerate and then reaccelerate in an intended direction

Two Variables that Describe Force Relative to the Time Available to Produce Force

Impulse and Rate of Force Development

Impulse

The change in momentum resulting from a force measured as the product of force and time

-A basic objective of training is to move the force-time curve up and to the left, generating greater impulse and momentum during the limited time over which force is applied

Rate of Force Development

-The development of maximal force in minimal time, typically used as an index of explosive strength

Physics of Sprinting, Change of Direction, and Agility

-Force represents the interaction of two physical objects

-Acceleration is the change in an object's velocity due to movement of mass

-Velocity describes both how fast an object is traveling and in what direction

Practical Implications for Change of Direction and Agility

In addition to the requirement for acceleration, the production of braking forces over certain periods of time, termed braking impulse, should be considered during change-of-direction and agility maneuvers

Nervous System and Speed

-Increases in neural drive, which are indicative of an increase in the rate at which action potentials occur, are related to increases in both muscular force production and the rate of force production

-Taken together, increases in neural drive may contribute to increases in the athletes RFD and impulse generation

Stretch-Shortening Cycle

-SSC actions exploit two phenomena: intrinsic muscle tendon behavior, force and length reflex feedback to the nervous system

-Acutely, SSC actions tend to increase mechanical efficiency and impulse via elastic energy recovery

-Chronically, they up regulate muscle stiffness and enhance neuromuscular activation

Spring Mass Model

-A mathematical model that depicts sprinting as a type of human locomotion in which the displacement of a body mass is the aftereffect from energy produced and is delivered through the collective coiling and extension of spring-like actions within muscle architecture

-A simple spring mass model relative to the GRF during the stance phase of a sprint

-During the stance phase, leg is uncompressed at initial contact and then compressed during mid stance

Plant Phase of Change of Direction Movement

-This is the point in a change-of-direction movement that represents the transition between the deceleration step and the acceleration step.

-Body positioning and the ability to maintain strong trunk positions during the deceleration of momentum and reorientation of the body to run in a new direction are critical for performance.

Sprinting

A series of coupled flight and support phases, known as strides, orchestrated in an attempt to displace the athlete's body down the track at maximal acceleration or velocity (or both), usually over brief distances and durations

Sprinting Speed

Determined by an athletes stride length and stride rate: more elite athletes have longer stride lengths and a more frequent stride rate

Elite Stride Length

2.70 m

Elite Stride Frequency

4.63 steps per second

Sprinting Technique Guidelines

-Linear sprinting involves a series of subtasks—the start, acceleration, and top speed.

-While these phases are technically distinct, they all require the athlete to volitionally move the lower limbs at maximal speeds through a series of stance and flight phases.

Stance Phase

Eccentric braking period followed by a concentric propulsive period

Flight Phase

Recovery and ground preparation

Sprinting Technique during Initial Acceleration and Acceleration

Sprinting Technique at Max Velocity

a) Late flight to early support

b) Early support

c) Midsupport

d) Late support, toe off

Training Goals

-Emphasize brief ground support times as a means of achieving rapid stride rate

-Emphasize further development of the SSC as a means to increase the amplitude of impulse for each step of the sprint

Brief Ground Support

-Requires high levels of explosive strength

-Developed systematically through consistent exposure to speed training as well as properly designed strength training programs

Further Development of SSC

-High achievers at top-speed sprinting produce high forces in a shorter stance phase using the SSC

-Complete weightlifting movements and their derivatives are key exercises in overloading the SSC with forces greater than those produced during an open sprint

Change of Direction Ability

-May change depending of the COD test

-A combination of the ability to decelerate, reorient the body to face or partially face the direction of intended travel, and then explosively reaccelerate that truly determines the COD ability

Perceptual Cognitive Ability

-There are several factors that are components of this ability which are: visual scanning, anticipation, pattern recognition, knowledge of the situation, decision making time and accuracy, and reaction time.

-Many of these aspects are sport specific

Technical Guidelines and Coaching

-Visual focus

-Body position during braking and reacceleration

-Leg action

-Arm action

Primary Goals of Agility Performance

-Enhanced perceptual-cognitive ability in various situations and tactical scenarios

-Effective and rapid braking of one's momentum

-Rapid reacceleration towards the new direction of travel

Methods of Developing Speed

Sprinting requires near-maximum to maximum muscle activation, which depends on high central nervous system activity. This activity is often referred to as rate coding.

Methods for Developing Speed via Strength

The transfer of strength improvements to sprinting may require an emphasis on the specificity of training. This transfer of training deals with the degree of performance adaptation and may result from the similarities between the movement patterns, peak force, RFD, acceleration, and velocity patterns of an exercise and the sporting environment

Methods for Developing Speed via Mobility

Coaches should ensure that proper postural integrity is in place before practice or competition

Methods of Developing Agility

-Agility actives should begin by adding the perceptual cognitive component to common closed skill change of direction drills

Frequency

The number of training sessions performed in a given time period

Intensity

The effort with which a repetition is executed

Relief or Recovery Interval

The time period between repetitions and sets