classical school

Beccaria

An Italian philosopher who advocated for the classical school of criminology, emphasizing free will and rationality in criminal behavior.

Bentham

An English philosopher who, along with Beccaria, contributed to the classical school of criminology, focusing on hedonistic calculus (think utilitarianism)

Hedonistic calculus

A theory suggesting individuals make decisions based on a rational calculation of maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.

Deterrence

The theory that punishment can prevent future criminal behavior by making the consequences of crime undesirable.

components of deterrence

swift, certain, severe

Swift punishment

The principle that punishment should occur quickly after a crime to have a greater deterrent effect.

Certain punishment

The likelihood that an offender will be caught and punished, which is crucial for effective deterrence.

Severe punishment

Punishments must be proportionate to the harm caused to deter criminal actions effectively.

Specific deterrence

efforts that keep the individual offender from future offending and assumes direct punishment will deter future illegal activity

General deterrence

efforts that keep others (beyond the offender) from future offending. this can manifest through assuming that apprehension/punishment of an offender - or indirect punishment, serves as a deterring example to others (think of example of professor lashing out at one individual and it scares surrounding students into place)

rational choice theory

lead academics: cornish and clarke (1986)

one of neoclassical theories

assume crime and victimization is opportunistic and unplanned,while also assuming rational decision-making

crime scripts

outlines steps and actions necessary for crime commission. this is developed over time through experience and practice. once developed, these become second nature and require little conscious thought

routine activities theory

lead academics: cohen and felson (1979)

neoclassical theory

normal daily behavior contributes to crime opportunities. These crime opportunities occur at the convergence of a motivted offender, suitable victim/target and an absence of capable guardianship (think crime triangle)

situational crime prevention

lead academic: Ron Clarke

aimed at specific problems, places, persons, and times. is utilized to impact offenders’ perceptions through situational techniques.

hot spots policing

policing in areas where crime is frequent and highly predictable as a means to utilize resources more adequately and effectively

crime prevention through environmental design (CPTEP)

efforts to alter the physical design of an area to impact crime through creating a defensible space

crime pattern theory

lead academics: brantingham and brantingham, 1993

this theory argues that crime fits identifiable patterns and it can be understood when we know where and when it occurs with components of nodes, paths, edges, and cognitive maps that make up the theory.

informal deterrence

a non-legal form of punishment that discourages or punishes people for breaking social norms (i.e. shunning, public shame, etc)

acute conformists

comply with the law because it is right to do so

incorrigible offenders

so committed to crime that nothing would forestall them from engaging in it

deterrable offenders

threat of sanctions has the potential to dissuade them from crime

expected utility principle

the idea that potential criminals rationally weigh the potential benefits of committing a crime against the anticipated costs (like the likelihood of arrest and punishment severity)

thoughtfully reflective decision making

a theoretical concept tht describes the process of making deliberate, well-considered choices by actively gathering information, weighing alternatives, and critically evaluating potential outcomes before committing to a decision

bounded rationality

this idea in rational choice theory that decisions are rational to an extent, but are limited to: one’s information at hand, prior experiences with similar situations, and perceptions of risks and rewards effort associated with crime (i.e. gambler’s fallacy)

classical school

People exercise free will & have agency (i.e., ability to choose)

People are hedonistic pleasure‐seekers

Rationally engage in hedonistic calculus

classical school policy implication

Alter outcome of hedonistic calculus

Punishment must offset pleasure of crime

• NOT focused on retribution &/or retaliation

components of deterrence

swift

certain

severe

Certainty

greatest deterrent potential

Swiftness & severity

hold little to no deterrent potential

examples of situational crime prevention

1. target hardening

2. access control

3. surveillance

4. identifying property (making it identifiable/unique to stand out)

5. hot spot policing

6. defensible space

7. territoriality

8. activity support

target hardening and access control

situational crime prevention method that increases effort to commit crime

surveillance

situational crime prevention method that increase risk to commit crime

target removal and identifying property

situational crime prevention method tht decreases the rewards from committing a crime

crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED)

efforts to alter the physical design of an area to impact crime

“defensible space”

concept coined by Newman in ‘72. give the residents of a community control of public spaces that they formerly felt were out of reach. In effect, residents care enough for their area to protect it from crime as they would protect their own private property.

forms of surveillance in CPTED

ability to oberserve inside/outside activity through natural, formal, and mechnical

territoriality in CPTED

sense of area ownership, recognize legitimate area users

• Real territoriality (i.e., walls, fences, & gates)

• Symbolic territoriality (i.e., signs & landscaping)

activity support in CPTED

assist & enhance community interactions(e.g., community gardens, street fairs/ parties, etc.)

(e.g., community gardens, street fairs/ parties, etc.)

Displacement

Undesirable movement of crime(s) due to prevention/ control method  From one geographic area to another  Shift from one type of crime to another

Diffusion of benefit

Beneficial intervention effect outside of target area  Spread to nearby area(s)  Spread to other crime(s) & offender(s)

components of crime pattern theory

1. nodes

2. paths

3. edges

4. cognitive map

nodes (CPT)

centers of your activity (i.e., residential, work, and commercial/recreational). they can promote crime

• Crime Generators – Draw potential victims to area

  • Stadiums, universities, & parks

• Crime Attractors – Draw potential offenders to area

  • Areas of drug use/ sale, prostitution, & adult clubs/ bars

• Hunting Ground – Offenders recognize that:

  • 1. Potential victims frequent area

  • 2. Lack of guardians in area

Paths (CPT)

Transit routes between nodes

Edges (CPT)

prime spots for crime

Physical edges may limit movement

Social & economic edges reflect areas of potential crime due to 1) anonymity & 2) lack of guardianship

Neoclassical theories

Modern sociological/ criminological theories are soft determinism

• Crime opportunities & offending motivations produced by:

  • Social & environmental factors (e.g., demographics, concentrated disadvantage, etc.)

rational choice theory

lead academics: Cornish and Clarke

Assumes crime is opportunistic & mostly unplanned

Assumes rational decision‐making

RTC Bounded rationality

Decisions are rational to an extent, but are limited to:

• Information at‐hand

• Prior experiences with similar situations

  • Perceptions of effort associated with crime

  • Crime scripts – second nature reactions, little conscious thought

Perceptions of risks & rewards effort associated with crime

• Gambler’s fallacy

Routine Activities Theory

lead academics: Cohen & Felson, 1979

Normal, daily behavior contributes to crime opportunities  Crime opportunities occur at the convergence of:  1. Motivated offender  2. Suitable target/ victim  3. Absence of capable guardianship

“The Crime Triangle”

Crime opportunities occur at the convergence of:

1. Motivated offender

2. Suitable target/ victim

3. Absence of capable guardianship