AP Lang 100 Terms

​Ad hominem​

directed against an opponent’s personal character rather than the position they are maintaining (From the Latin meaning ​to the man​)

​Ad populum fallacy​ (Bandwagon Appeal)

a fallacy that occurs when evidence boils down to “everybody’s doing it, so it must be a good thing to do.”

​Allegory​

an extended narrative in prose or verse in which characters, events, and settings represent abstract qualities and in which the writer intends a second meaning to be read beneath the surface story; the underlying meaning may be moral, religious, political, social, or satiric

​Alliteration

​the repetition of initial sounds in successive or neighboring words (Ex. “while I nodded, nearly napping”)

​Allusion

​a reference to something literary, mythological, or historical

​Ambivalent​

​having or showing simultaneous and contradictory attitudes or feelings toward something or someone

​Analogy​

a comparison that explains one thing in terms of another to highlight the ways in which they are alike (EXAMPLE:"He's as flaky as a snowstorm.”)

​Anaphora

​a rhetorical device of repeating the same word or words at the start of two or more lines of poetry or successive phrases or sentences in prose

​Anecdote​

a brief story used to illustrate a point or claim

​Anticlimactic​

referring to an event, period, or outcome that is strikingly less important or dramatic than expected

​Antithesis

​a rhetorical device contrasting words, clauses, sentences, or ideas, balancing one against the other in strong opposition. The contrast is reinforced by the similar grammatical structure (Example: “[W]e shall . . . support any friend, oppose any foe . . .” -John F. Kennedy)

​Appeal to Authority

​an argument made in which truth is attributed to a statement based on the authority of the speaker or the authority of someone supporting the statement

​Appeal to Ignorance

​an argument made in which an assumption of a conclusion is based primarily on lack of evidence to the contrary ​(X is true because you cannot prove that X is false // X is false because you cannot prove that X is true) ​(EXAMPLE: Santa Claus is real because you can’t prove that he doesn’t exist.)

​Aphorism

​a concise statement which expresses succinctly a general truth or idea often using language that isn’t meant to be taken literally and using rhyme of balance (Example: ​Give him an inch and he'll take a mile.)

​Apostrophe

​a rhetorical device in which an absent or imaginary person or an abstraction is directly addressed as though present (Ex. “Death, be not proud.”)

​Assonance

​the repetition of vowel sounds between different consonants, such as in ​neigh / fade

​Asyndeton

​the omission or absence of conjunctions between a series of related clauses, used for the stylistic purpose of increasing rhythmic speed or emphasis ​(“...government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the Earth.” – The Gettysburg Address”)

​Cacophony

​harsh, awkward, or dissonant sounds used deliberately in poetry or prose; the opposite of euphony

Circular Reasoning

a fallacy in which the argument repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence ​(X is true because of Y // Y is true because of X)

EXAMPLE: You can’t give me a C; I’m an A student.

​Chiasmus

​a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other by the reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic effect (EXAMPLE: “It is not the oath that makes us believe the man, but the man the oath.” -Aeschylus, 5th Century B.C.)

​Claim of Fact​

a claim that asserts that something is true or not true (EXAMPLE: “The number of suicides and homicides committed by teenagers, most often young men, has exploded in the last three decades . . .” -Anna Quindlen)

​Claim of Policy​

a claim that proposes a change (EXAMPLE: “Yet one solution continues to elude us, and that is ending the ignorance about mental health, and moving it from the margins of care and into the mainstream where it belongs.” -Anna Quindlen)

​Claim of Value​

a claim that argues whether something is good or bad or right or wrong (EXAMPLE: “There’s a plague on all our houses, and since it doesn’t announce itself with lumps or spots or protest marches, it has gone unremarked in the quiet suburbs and busy cities where is has been laying waste.” -Anna Quindlen)

Clause

a group of words witha subject and its verb in it

​Colloquialism

informal words or expression not usually acceptable in formal writing

Complex Sentence

a sentence that contains at least one independent clause and at lesat one dependent clause (a group of words with a subject and a verb that cannot stand alone) EXAMPLE: Becayse she is hungry, she ate dinner.

Compound-complex Sentence

a sentence that contains at least ​two​ independent clauses and at least ​one​ dependent clause (EXAMPLE: She completed her literature work, but she still needs to proofread before she submits it.)

​C​ompound sentence​

a sentence that ​contains at least ​two​ ​independent clauses (two sets of subjects and verbs) EXAMPLE: She read the book, and she liked it.

​Conceit​

an elaborate figure of speech in which two seemingly dissimilar things or situations are compared

Concession

an acknowledgement that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable

Confirmation

​the part of a speech/essay providing logical arguments in support of a position

Connotation

​the implied or associative meaning of a word (as opposed to denotation)

​Consonance

​the repetition of a consonant sound used to create a rhyme or cadence that typically refers to the repetition of sounds at the end of the word but can also refer to repeated sounds in the middle of a word (EXAMPLE: pitter patter -repetition of the "t," and "r" sounds)

Counterargument

an opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward

​Cumulative sentence​

sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning of the sentence and then builds and adds on (EXAMPLE: “But neither can two great and powerful groups of nations take comfort from our present course—both sides overburdened by the cost of modern weapons, both rigidly alarmed by the steady spread of the deadly atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of terror that stays in the hand of mankind’s final war.” -John F. Kennedy)

​Deduction

​a method of reasoning in which one reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise); the process is usually demonstrated in the form of a syllogism, as the following example shows:

MAJOR PREMISE: Exercise contributes to better health.

MINOR PREMISE: Yoga is a type of exercise.

CONCLUSION: Yoga contributes to better health.

Denotation

​the literal meaning of a word (as opposed to connotation)

​Dependent (or subordinate) clause​

a group of words with a subject and its verb that cannot stand alone

Diction

word choice

Didatic

intended to teach, particularly in conveying moral instruction; might be used to describe a writer’s or speaker’s tone

Dissonance

​the grating of sounds that are harsh or do not go together

Ellipsis

​the omission of a word or phrase which is grammatically necessary but can be deduced from the context (Ex. Kathleen wants to be a firefighter; Sara, a nurse.)

​Epiphora

​a rhetorical device of repeating the same word or phrase at the end of several clauses (almost a reciprocal of anaphora) ​(“Sweet Portia,/ If you did know to whom I gave the ring/ If you did know for whom I gave the ring/ And would conceive for what I gave the ring/ And how unwillingly I left the ring/ When nought would be accepted but the ring,/ You would abate the strength of your displeasure.)

Ethos

​the ethical appeal based on the character, credibility, or reliability of the speaker/writer – persuading the audience that the person making the argument is worth listening to (from the Greek meaning ​character​)

Euphemisim

​an indirect, less offensive way of saying something that is considered unpleasant (ex. “laid to rest” for “buried”)

​Euphony

​a succession of harmonious sounds used in poetry or prose; the opposite of cacophony

​Fallacy

​an erroneous argument dependent upon an unsound or illogical contention

​False Dilemma

​a fallacy of oversimplification, presenting the audience with a limited number of options (usually two) when more are actually available

​Fanciful​

characterized by imagination rather than by reason and experience

Foil

a character who, by contrast, highlights the characteristics of another character

​Hasty generalization​

a fallacy in which a conclusion is not logically justified given the evidence at hand (meaning insufficient or discernibly biased evidence)

Hyperbole

​deliberate exaggeration in order to create humor or emphasis

​Ibidem​

a Latin word meaning “in the same place” (used in footnotes to indicate that information presented in one note came from the same place as the information in the previous note)

​Independent clause​

a group of words with a subject and its verb that can stand alone

​Induction

​a method of reasoning in which specific details move towards a generalized conclusion (as opposed to deduction)

EXAMPLE: Regular exercise promotes weight loss.

Regular exercise lowers stress levels.

Regular exercise improves mood and outlook.

Generalization: Exercise contributes to better health.

Irony

​a situation or statement where the truth is the opposite of appearances

​Invective

​Speech or writing that attacks, insults, or denounces a subject, generally in an abusive, injurious manner

​Inversion​

inverted order of words in a sentence (a variation of the subject-verb-object order)

Jargon

​the use of specific words and phrases by those in a particular area of study, profession, or trade

​Juxtaposition​

placement of two things closely together to emphasize similarities or differences (EXAMPLE: “The nations of Asia and Africa are moving at jet-like speed toward gaining political independence, but we still creep at horse-and-buggy pace toward gaining a cup of coffee at a lunch counter.” -Martin Luther King, Jr.)

​Litotes

​a type of understatement in which something affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite (Ex. “The teacher was not overly impressed by the poor test results.”)

​Logos

​the appeal to reason, relying on logic. Logos often relies on the use of inductive or deductive reasoning (from the Greek meaning ​word​)

​Metonymy

​a figure of speech that uses the name of an object, person, or idea to represent something with which it is associated, such as using “the crown” to refer to a monarch

​Modes of Discourse

​Systems of thoughts composed of different beliefs, practices, ideas, and attitudes, which present a subject in a particular way. The four main modes are exposition, narrative, description, and argument.

​Motif

​a standard theme or dramatic situation which recurs in various works

Mood

​the atmosphere that pervades a literary work with the intention of evoking a certain emotion or feeling from the audience.

​Non Sequitur

​an inference that does not logically follow from the premise(s)

Ode

​a long lyric poem, usually serious and elevated in tone; often written to praise someone or something

​Onomatopoeia

​the formation of a word from the imitation of natural sounds, such as ​hiss ​and boom

Oxymoron

​an expression in which two words that contradict each other are joined (ex. jumbo shrimp)

Parable

​a short tale that teaches a moral; similar to but shorter than an allegory

​Paradox

​a statement that seems to contradict itself but that turns out to have a rational meaning, as in this quotation from Henry David Thoreau: “I never found the companion that was so companionable as solitude.”

​Parallelism​

similarity of grammatical structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses (EXAMPLE: Let both sides explore . . . Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals . . . Let both sides seek to invoke . . . Let both sides unite to heed . . .” -John F. Kennedy)

​Pathos

​the appeal to emotion/passion, relying on the manipulation of the audience’s sentiments as a means of persuasion (from the Greek meaning ​suffering ​or ​experience​)

​Periodic sentence​

sentence whose main clause is withheld until the end (EXAMPLE: To that world assembly of sovereign states, the United Nations, our last best hope in an age where the instruments of war have far outpaced the instruments of peace, we renew our pledge of support . . .” -John F. Kennedy)

​Polysyndeton

​the use of many conjunctions to achieve an overwhelming effect

​Qualified argument​

an argument that is not absolute and acknowledges the merits of an opposing view but still develops a stronger case for its own position

​Rebuttal​

a part of an argument in which the writer or speaker ​explains why the opposing position is wrong or shows how it is false

Red Herring

a fallacy that results when a speaker skips to a new and irrelevant topic in order to avoid the topic of discussion

Rejoinder

an answer to a reply

​Refutation

​the part of an argument in which the speaker/writer confronts (and, ideally, ​Rhetoric:dismantles) the contradicting point of view

​Rhetoric

​the art of effective, persuasive speaking or writing, especially through the use of figurative language and compositional techniques

​Rogerian argument​

argument based on the assumption that fully understanding an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating

Romantic

imaginary having no basis in fact

Satire

the use of irony or sarcasm to critique society or an individual

​S​imple sentence​

sentence that contains a subject and a verb but contains only ​one​ independent clause (a group of words that contains a subject and a verb that can stand alone as a complete thought) EXAMPLE: She read the book​.

​Stock Character

​a standard character who may be stereotyped, such as the miser or the fool, or universally recognized, like the hard-boiled private eye in detective stories

​Straw Man Fallacy​

a fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an opponent’s viewpoint

Syllepsis

​the linking of one word with two other words in two strikingly different ways (Ex. The migrants “exhausted their credit, exhausted their friends.”)

​Syllogism

​a kind of logical argument using deductive reasoning; two (or more) propositions are asserted to be true, and a conclusion follows. ​(All men are mortal / Socrates is a man / Therefore, Socrates is mortal)

​Symbol

​an object which is something in itself yet is used to represent something else

​Synechdoche

​the use of one part of an object to represent the entire object, such as using “boards” to mean “a stage” or “wheels” to mean “a car”

​Synesthesia

​Describing one kind of sensation in terms of another, e.g., sound as color, color as sound, sound as taste, color as temperature

​Synthesize​

to combine two or more ideas in order to create something more complex in support of a new idea

​Syntax

​the arrangement of words within a sentence – includes sentence length and complexity; the variety and pattern of sentence form; inversion of natural word order; unusual juxtaposition; repetition; parallelism; use of active or passive voice; level of discourse

​Tautology

​needless repetition which adds no meaning or understanding (Ex. widow woman; free gift; close proximity)

Tone

​the attitude of a writer, usually implied, toward the subject or audience (may be described with words such as sardonic, apologetic, light-hearted, or somber)

Transition

​words and phrases providing connections between ideas, sentences, and paragraphs, thus increasing flow and presenting the piece as a unified whole

Understatement

​the deliberate representation of something as less in magnitude than it really is

​Zeugma

​use of two different words in a grammatically similar way that produces different, often incongruous, meanings ​(EX: John held the door and his breath.)