AP PSYCHOLOGY

B.F

Known for Operant Conditioning and Schedules of Reinforcement

Jean Piaget

Identified 4 stages of child cognitive development

Sigmund Freud

Father of Psychoanalysis, introduced Psychosexual Stages and Dream Analysis

Albert Bandura

Pioneered Observational Learning and Social Learning Theory

Abraham Maslow

Studied Human Motivation, Hierarchy of Needs, and Self-Actualization

Ivan Pavlov

Explored Classical Conditioning

Carl Rogers

Introduced Humanistic Perspective and Client-Centered Therapy

Erik Erikson

Developed Psychosocial Development Stages

William James

Father of American Psychology, known for Functionalism and James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Evolutionary Psychology

Focuses on mental processes serving evolutionary purposes for survival & reproduction

Psychodynamic Perspective

Emphasizes behavior determined by past experiences and unconscious mind

Cognitive Psychology

Focuses on internal mental processes influencing behavior

Biological Perspective

Considers the influence of genetics and brain chemistry on behavior

Sociocultural Perspective

Focuses on society and culture shaping behavior and cognition

Behavioral Psychology

Emphasizes observable behaviors and environmental influences

Humanistic Psychology

Focuses on human capacity for choice, growth, and self-fulfillment

Biopsychosocial Eclectic Approach

Considers the links between genetics and environment in behavior

Wundt

Known for Structuralism, First Psychology Experiment, and Father of Modern Psychology

Psychology

Science of behavior and mental processes, using empirical evidence and the scientific method

Operational Definition

A way to measure or quantify a variable in research

Replication

Repeating an experiment with different participants to generalize results

Case Study

In-depth examination of one person or group

Naturalistic Observation

Describing behavior in a natural state without intervention

Survey

Self-report data collection method

Random Sampling

Giving every population member an equal chance of selection

Random Assignment

Randomly assigning participants to groups to establish cause and effect

Correlation

Relationship between variables, not implying causation

Independent Variable

Manipulated variable in an experiment

Dependent Variable

Outcome or measured variable in an experiment

Confounding Variable

External factor that may influence study results

Fixed-Ratio

Reinforcement after a specific number of responses

Variable-Ratio

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed-Interval

Reward after a specified time has passed

Variable-Interval

Reward after an unpredictable time has passed

Observational Learning

Process of learning by watching and imitating others

Latent Learning

Learning without immediate behavior display

Insight Learning

Sudden realization of a problem's solution

Learned Helplessness

Feeling of helplessness after learning inability to change outcomes

Prototype

Mental image or best example of a concept

Convergent Thinking

Logic-based problem-solving for a single answer

Divergent Thinking

Imagination exploring multiple solutions

Problem Solving Strategies

Trial and Error, Algorithms, Heuristics

Representative Heuristic

Comparing to a mental prototype

Availability Heuristic

Decisions based on immediate examples

Mental Set

Using past solutions for current problems

Functional Fixedness

Viewing problems in a usual manner

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate one's knowledge or skills

Hindsight Bias

Seeing events as more predictable after they occur

Framing

Response to a neutral stimulus

Intelligence

Alfred Binet, g factor, Fluid & Crystallized Intelligence

Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner's theory

Flynn Effect

Rising IQ scores globally

Achievement Tests

Measure skills/knowledge in a specific area

Aptitude Tests

Assess a person's capabilities or predict future performance

Reliability

Test consistency in producing the same scores

Validity

Degree to which a test measures what it's supposed to

Normal Distribution

Bell-shaped curve of scores

Recall

Accessing information without cues

Recognition

Identifying information after experiencing it

Relearning

Learning something faster the second time

Encoding

Putting information into memory

Storage

Creating a permanent record of encoded information

Retrieval

Recalling stored information when needed

Iconic Memory

Visual memory

Echoic Memory

Auditory memory

Haptic Memory

Touch memory

Working Memory

Temporarily retaining and manipulating information

Miller's Magic Number

Number of items in short-term memory

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory

Explicit Memory

Conscious memory, Semantic & Episodic

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do something in the future

Long-Term Potentiation

Strengthening synaptic connections

Forgetting Curve

Exponential loss of information after learning

Types of Amnesia

Retrograde & Anterograde

Serial Position Effect

Recalling first and last items best

Encoding Failure

Memory not formed due to lack of effort

Proactive & Retroactive Interference

Old and new memories affecting recall

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid memories of significant events

Misinformation Effect

Exposure to misleading information affecting memory

Method of Loci

Associating words with visualization for memory

Context & State Dependent Memory

Recall influenced by context or mood

Distributed Practice

Spacing study sessions for better retention

Longitudinal Study

Following a group over time

Cross-Sectional Study

Examining different ages at the same time

Cross-Sequential Study

Testing individuals multiple times over a period

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame, etc.

Teratogen

Agent causing birth defects

Maturation

Genetic growth tendencies influencing development

Attachment Styles

Secure, Avoidant, Anxious-Ambivalent

Parenting Styles

Authoritarian, Permissive, Authoritative

Piaget's Cognitive Development

Assimilation, Accommodation, Stages

Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development & Scaffolding

Gender Identity & Roles

Psychological sense of gender and societal expectations

Synaptic Pruning

Removal of unnecessary neurons for brain efficiency

Adolescent Egocentrism

Heightened self-consciousness in adolescence

Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning Levels

Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional

Instinct Theory

Motivation based on evolutionary instincts

Incentive Theory

Motivation by external incentives

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Optimal arousal for performance

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Psychological, Safety, Belongingness, Esteem, Self-Actualization.