AP PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGISTS
B.F. Skinner
Operant
Conditioning, Schedules of Reinforcement
Social psych:
PSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVES
Jean Piaget
4 stages of child cognitive development
Sigmund Freud
Father of
Psychoanalysis, Psychosexual Stages,
Dream Analysis
Albert Bandura
Observational
Learning, Social Learning Theory
Abraham Maslow
Human Motivation, Hierarchy of Needs, Self-Actualization
Ivan Pavlov
Classical
Conditioning
Carl Rogers
Humanistic
Perspective, Client Centered Therapy
Erik Erikson
Psychosocial
Development Stages
William James
Father of American
Psychology
Functionalism,
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Evolutionary
Mental processes exist because they serve an evolutionary purpose, they aid in survival & reproduction
Psychodynamic
Emphasizes behavior is determined by your past experiences that are left in the unconscious mind and childhood experiences
Cognitive
Focuses on internal processes of the mind influencing behavior
Biological
The influence of genetics and brain chemistry (physical & biological processes)
Sociocultural
Focuses on society and culture in terms of our behavior and shaping cognition
Behavioral
Focus on observable behaviors, people/ animals are controlled by their environment, positive/negative consequences
Humanistic
Human capacity for choice and growth, motivation for people to fulfill their potential
Biopsychosocial Eclectic (Combining
Approach), Links between genetics and environment
Wundt: Structuralism, Father of Modern Psychology, First Psychology Experiment
Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes
• Psychology is a science due to the use of
empirical evidence and the scientific method
Psychology's foundations were in philosophy and physiology
• Structuralism was an early approach focused on the structure of the mind.
Introspection (the process of looking inward) Edward
Titchener
• Functionalism was focused on the purpose of the mind. Developed by William James.
• Nature & Nurture Debate
Nature is your genetics &
Nurture is your environment.
Basic research builds psychology's knowledge and applied research is application of existing knowledge in the real world
• *Operational definition is a way of measuring or quantifying a variable. This term will likely be on the research FRQ. Practice operationalizing variables.
Variable: Happiness
Operational Definition:
The number of smiles a person emits during an observation period of specified length
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Replication is repeating an experiment with different participants. This will determine if the results can be generalized to other participants & other situations
Case Study examine one person or group in depth.
Example: Phineas Gage survived an accident with a large iron rod through his head (one person studied in-depth)
Naturalistic observation describes behavior in its most natural state without interference or intervention
Survey is self-report data, questions influenced by wording
Random Sampling gives every member of a population an equal chance of being selected for the sample (use a
random number
generator to select)
Random Assignment
Randomly (by chance) assigning participants to the control group or the experimental group to help establish cause and effect. It would eliminate or reduce the impact of specific individual
differences/confounding variables in a study. This term will likely be on the research FRQ!
You should go behind just providing the definition in an
FRQ. You must apply each part of random assignment to the context of the prompt.
Use keywords!
-Random Chance, Cause/Effect, Minimize Individual Differences
• Correlation is causation. Correl predict.
SYRONG POSITIVE
CORRELATION
WEAK POSITIVE CORRELATION
STRONG NEGATIVE
CORRELATION
WRAK REGATE
CORRELATION
MODERATE NEGATIVE
CORRELATION
NO CORRELATION
• No Correlation=0.
Correlation coefficient close to O=weaker, Closer to l=stronger (+/-)
Independent Variable is the variable being manipulated and
Dependent Variable is the outcome/ measurement.
Confounding Variable is a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results
Experimental Group is the treatment group and
Control group is the comparison group (no treatment)
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Placebo Effect seems to be a "real" medical treatment -- but isn't (i.e. sugar pill)
Single Blind Procedure is when participants don't know if they get the treatment or placebo, Double Blind Procedure is when neither the
researcher or participants know who received the treatment or placebo
Experiments establish cause and effect. Experiments manipulate variables.
Descriptive Statistics describes sets of data.
Inferential Statistics draw conclusions about the sets of data
Mean=Average Value
Median=Middle Value
Mode=Occurs Most
Symetric Distribution
Right-Skewed Distribution
Left Skewed Distrib
Mean Median
Standard Deviation how scores vary around the mean score
Statistical Significance
How likely that a result occurred by chance (p value less than 0.05)
Ethics (Rules of Conduct)
• American Psychological
Association (APA)
establishes ethic codes
Institutional Review
Board reviews proposals for research, approval is needed for experiment
Informed Consent all subjects given necessary information to decide to participate in study, or not
Confidentiality any data collected in the experiment should remain confidential (use pseudonyms)
• Debriefing experimenter tells the subject more information about the study's purpose and procedures after the study is completed
Scientific Foundations is very important to review because of the FRQs will be based on Research
Methods.
BIOLOGICAL BASES OF
BEHAVIDR 8%-10%
Lobes of the Brain
Frontal Lobe Executive Function, Higher Level
Cognition
Parietal Lobe Sensory
Information
Occipital Lobe Vision
Temporal Lobe Sense of hearing/meaningful speech
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Structures of the Brain
Corpus Callosum connects two hemispheres
Medulla controls life sustaining functions,
breathing, heart rate, blood pressure
Cerebellum, control coordination "balance"/ voluntary movements
Hypothalamus, responsible for releasing hormones (regulate homeostasis of the body)
Hippocampus formation of memories
Amygdala "Fear Center" processing emotion and survival responses
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
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Broca's Area speech production, Wernicke's Area, comprehension of speech
Motor Cortex voluntary movement
Somatosensory Cortex receives and processes sensory information
The Nervous System (body's
communication network)
• Central Nervous System brain and the spine
• Peripheral Nervous
System sensory nerves outside brain/spinal cord
Somatic Nervous System voluntary moment from your brain to your muscles
Autonomic Nervous
System involuntary and unconscious actions (breathing, blood pumping, etc.)
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Sympathetic Nervous system emergency response system "Fight, Flight, or Freeze" Parasympathetic
Nervous System calm a person "rest and digest"
The Neuron
Temporal lobe
• Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in the brain
Split Brain is the two hemispheres of the brain can't communicate with each side (researched by Sperry and Gazzaniga)
1. Dendrites receive message
2. Soma, keep the neuron functional
3. Myelin Sheath protect nerve/speed up message
4. Axon carry messages
5. Axon Terminals send signals
Neural Transmission
information travels through a neuron electrochemically
• Action Potential "Firing" neuron sends information
• Resting Potential neuron is charge and ready to fire
• All-or-None Principle neuron fires at full strength or not at all
+40
Action potential
Depolarization
Vot age (mV)
-55
Threshold
- 70
Faled
initiations
Resting state
Stimulus 1
Refractory period
1
Time (ms)
4
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers
Excitatory
Neurotransmitters cause neurons to fire
• Inhibitory
Neurotransmitters prevent neurons from firing
Acetylcholine movement & memory
Serotonin mood
Dopamine pleasure chemical of the brain
• Norepinephrine response to danger "flight or flight"
GABA calms the central nervous system
• Glutamate thinking, memory, learning
• Endorphins relieve pain and stress, feelings of pleasure/euphoria
Axon Terminals
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Afferent Neuron sensory neuron, sensory input to spinal cord into the brain Efferent Neuron motor neurons, carry signals away from central nervous system to initiate an action Interneuron middleman between the afferent and efferent neurons
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Endocrine System glands that secrete chemical messengers called hormones
Pituitary Gland "Master Gland" controlled by the hypothalamus
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Nature genetics
Nurture environment
Identical twins have the same DNA and fraternal twins have different DNA
Heritability extent to which differences in the
appearance of a trait across several people can be accounted for by differences in their genes
Sleep Cycles
Circadian Rhythm 24 hour cycle, body's internal biological clock
Electroencephalography
(EEG) test record electrical activity in the brain
REM Sleep is your dream sleep. It is called
paradoxical sleep because brain waves are very active but muscles are paralyzed
Sleep Cycle
Receptor Sites
The sleep cycle is every 90-710 minutes
Psychoactive Drug
• Agonist mimic neurotransmitters.
Antagonist block neurotransmitters
• Depressants slow the activity of the central nervous system
Alcohol depresses the areas of the brain that control judgment and inhibition
SENSATION & PERCEPTION
6%-8%
• Transduction is the process of converting physical energy into electrical signals
• Bottom-Up Processing small details → big picture
• Top-Down Processing big picture → small details
Absolute Threshold the point where you notice that a stimulus is present
• Difference Threshold the point where you can detect the difference between stimuli
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Sensory Adaptation reduced sensitivity to a stimulus after constant exposure to it
Cocktail Party Effect ability to focus on a particular sound while partial filtering out other sounds
Inattentional Blindness focus on one stimulus will lead to between blind to other stimuli (change blindness=miss changes)
Perceptual Set predisposition to perceive things in a certain way (notice certain aspects of an object/situation while ignoring other details)
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Rods responsible for vision at low light levels
Cones vision at higher light levels and capable of color vision
Blind Spot area in the eye with no receptor cells
• Opponent-Process
Theory repeated exposure to stimulus will cause less of an initial reaction and a stronger opposing reaction
Red-Green, Blue-Yellow, Black-White
Binocular Cues depth perception using two eyes vs. Monocular Cues, depth perception using one eye
Perceptual Organization, ways that humans organize information
• Figure-Ground, ability to differentiate an object from its background
• Grouping, tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
proximity
similarity
ОООО
continulty
closure
area
symmetry
Visual Cliff laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants
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Shape & Size Constancies we perceive the form of familiar objects as constant even while our retinas receive changing images of them
Sensorineural hearing loss damage in your inner ear (tiny hair cells)
Conduction hearing loss anatomical structure in the ear block the passage of sound
Cochlea sound waves traveling through the cochlea fluid trigger nerve impulses
Gate-Control Theory the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological
"gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain.
Kinesthesia our movement sense
Vestibular Sense our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance
LEARNING 7% -9%
Classical Conditioning=
Association between two
stimuli resulting in a learned response
Acquisition the process of pairing the UCS with the CS
Unconditioned Stimulus
US/UCS something that triggers a naturally occurring response
Conditioned Stimulus CS neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar response as the
unconditioned stimulus
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Unconditioned Resp
(UR) naturally occurrir response that follows unconditioned stimul
Conditioned Respons
(CR) the acquired response to the former neutral stimulus
High
Acquisition
(CS + UCS)
Extinction
(CS alone)
Spontaneous recovery of CR
Strength of CR
Extinction
(CS alone)
Low
Time
Extinction conditioned response decreases or disappears (no longer paired with unconditioned stimulus
Spontaneous Recovery return of previously extinct conditioned response after a rest period
Stimulus Generalization conditioned stimulus may evoke similar responses
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after the response as been conditioned
Stimulus Discrimination the ability to differentiate between a conditioned
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stimulus and other stimuli
Operant Conditioning learning through rewards
behavior
and punishments for
Reinforcing Stimulus
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behavior it follows strengthens or increases the
Positive (+)
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Reinforcement add
Negative (-)
increases as a result
something good, behavior
Reinforcement remove Something bad, behavior increases as a result
Punishment Stimulus presentation of an negative consequence that causes a decrease in the behavior
Positive (+) Punishment add something bad, behavior decreases
Negative (-) Punishment remove something good, behavior decreases
Schedules of Reinforcement, timing of how often a desired response will be reinforced
• Fixed-Ratio response is reinforced only after a specific number of responses
• Variable-Ratio Schedules response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses
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Fixed-Interval Schedules response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed
Variable-Interval
Schedules response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed
Observational Learning process of watching other then later imitating the behaviors that were observed
• Latent Learning one can learn something but not show the behavior right away
• Insight Learning sudden realization of the problem's solution that
"just came to you" (Kohler)
Learned Helplessness organism becomes helpless after learning they have no ability to change the outcome (Seligman)
09
Education
Social
Creativity
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
13%-17%
Prototype mental image or the best example of a specific concept
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Convergent Thinking
"Logic" focuses on coming up with the single,
well-established answer to problem
Divergent Thinking
"Imagination" exploring
many possible solutions (creativity)
Problem Solving Strategies
Trial and Error trying a number of different solutions and ruling out those that do not work
Algorithms set of
step-by-step procedures that provides the correct answer to a particular problem
Heuristics educated guess based on prior experiences (mental shortcuts)
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Representative Heuristic comparing present situation to most
representative mental prototype
Availability Heuristic decisions on examples and information that
immediately spring to mind
Obstacles to problem solving
• Mental Set people use solutions that have worked in the past
Functional Fixedness view problems only in their usual manner
• Overconfidence tendency to overestimate our own knowledge, skill, or judgment
Hindsight Bias
"I-knew-it-all-along"
events as more predictable than they really are
Framing the acquired response to the formerly neutral stimulus
Intelligence
• Alfred Binet french psychologist invented first practical IQ test
1Q =
g factor (general intelligence factor that underlies all intelligent activity) Charles
Spearman
mental age
X 100
chronological age
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Fluid Intelligence ability to reason think flexibly (diminish with adult aging)
Crystallized Intelligence accumulation of knowledge, facts/skills (increase with age)
Howard Gardner=Theory of Multiple Intelligences
(8 distinct type)
• Wechsler Intelligence
Scales (WAIS) intelligence was made up a number of different mental abilities rather than a single
general intelligence factor
• Flynn Effect, IQ scores have been rising worldwide
Achievement Tests designed to measure person's level of skill/knowledge in a specific area
Aptitude Tests assess what a person is capable of doing or to predict
Reliability "Consistency" tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people
Test-Retest Reliability
*Best for Intelligence, administering a test twice at two different points in time
Split-Half Reliability
Comparing the results of one half of a test with the results from the other half
• Validity The degree in which a test actually measures what it's supposed to measure
Content Validity test measures all aspects of what it is designed to measure
Predictive test accurately forecasts performance on a future measure
Normal Distribution
Bell-shaped curve in which the majority of scores lie near or around the average score
99.7% of the data are within
3 standard deviations of the mean
95% within
2 standerd deviations
68% within
1 standard deviation
As you look further toward the extreme ends of the distribution, scores tend to become less common
f
iP
Recall Being able to access the information without being cued (fill in the blank test without word bank)
Recognition Identifying information after experiencing it again (multiple choice test)
Relearning The process by which we learn something for the second time. This learning process often occurs faster than the first time (study for cumulative final)
Encoding The process of putting information into the memory system
Storage The creation of a permanent record of the encoded information
Retrieval The calling back of stored information on demand when it is needed
• Iconic Memory visual
Echoic Memory auditory
• Haptic Memory touch
• Maintenance Rehearsal
Straight repeating of information in order to memorize it
Chunking Process of taking individual pieces of information (chunks) and grouping them into larger units
17761812186119141941
1776 1812 1861
1914 1941
• Working Memory system in your brain that allows you to temporarily retain and manipulate the stored information involved in a complex process
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Number of items a person can remember and repeat back using attention and short-term memory
(George Miller)
Miller's Magic Number
Implicit "Unconscious"
Memory Information that you remember unconsciously and effortlessly
Procedural Memories how to perform a specific task
Explicit "Conscious"
Memory Information that you have to consciously work to remember Semantic Memory
"Facts" memories of facts, concepts, names, and other general knowledge
Episodic Memory
"Events" long-term
memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences
Prospective Memory
Remembering to
complete a task in the future
Long-Term Potentiation
(LTP) Strengthening of a synaptic connection that happens when the synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires and excites another neuron (Kandel & Schwartz)
Neurons that fire together wire together
Forgetting Curve the exponential loss of information shortly after learning it (Hermann Ebbinghaus)
Types of Amnesia (full or partial loss of memory)
• Retrograde Amnesia
cannot remember things that happened before the event that caused their amnesia
• Anterograde Amnesia
Condition in which a person is unable to create new memories after an amnesia-inducing event
Serial Position Effect
When we try to retrieve a long list of words we usually recall the last words (recency effect) and first words best (primary effect), forgetting the words in the middle
• Encoding Failure Occurs when a memory was never formed in the first place (Without effort, many memories never form)
"In one ear and out the other"
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Proactive (Previous)
interference old memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories
Retroactive (Recent) interference newer memories interfere with the retrieval of older memories
Flashbulb Memory vivid and detailed memories that people create during times of personal tragedy, accident, or emotionally significant world events
Elizabeth Loftus (1944) extensive research on memory construction and false memories and how memory is changeable, it is not always accurate Misinformation effect exposed to misleading information we tend to misremember
Method of Loci association of words on a list with visualization of places on a familiar path
Context Dependent
Memory easier recall of information while in the same "context" of environment in which it was acquired
State Dependent Memory memories that are
triggered or enhanced by a person's current mood because of the relationship to memories formed when you were in a similar state
AP Study Tip: Distributed
Practice, Spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods (avoid massed practice of cramming the memorization of information into one session)
DEVELOPMENT
PSYCHOLOGY 7%
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Longitudinal Study follows the same group o people over a period of time from months to many years in order to evaluate changes in those individuals
Cross-Sectional Type of study in which people of different ages are examined at the same
time(s)
Cross-Sequential
Individuals in a cross-sectional sample are tested more than once over a specified period of time
Erik Erikson psychosocial stages of development
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Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy (independence) vs
Shame/Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt Am I good or bad?
Industry (sense of pride and accomplishment) vs.
Inferiority
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Who am I?
Intimacy vs. Isolation Will I be loved or will I be alone?
Generativity (contribute to the next generation) vS.
Stagnation (little connection to others
Ego Integrity (sense of satisfaction while reflecting on life) vs.
Despair (sense of failure)
Teratogen Any non genetic agent that produces birth defects at exposures that commonly occur
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
(FAS) includes physical, cognitive, and psychological
abnormalities that result from consuming alcohol during pregnancy
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Maturation Genetic growth tendencies are inborn, determined by genetic makeup
Maturation sets the basic course of development;
experience adjusts it
• Harry Harlow
Psychologist, conducted studies of attachment and the importance of contact comfort
Strange Situation Experiments (Mary Ainsworth)
• Secure Attachment infants explore, display high stranger anxiety, easy to calm/enthusiastic on return to the caregiver Avoidant (Insecure)
Attachment infants explore, low stranger anxiety, unconcerned by separation and avoid contact at return of caregiver
Anxious-Ambivalent
Attachment unwilling to explore, high stranger anxiety, upset by separation and seek and reject contact on return of the caregiver
Securely attached children comprised the majority of the sample in Ainsworth's studies
Investigators have identified three parenting styles Diana Baumrind:
• Authoritarian Restrictive parenting style.This style of parenting allows for little discussion or explanation of the firm controls placed on the child.
Permissive Parenting style that is characterized by having few and inconsistent rules and a relaxed attitude to
parenting that is more like a friend than a parent
Authoritative Parenting style that is child-centered, in that parents closely interact with their children, while maintaining high expectations for behavior and performance, as well as a firm adherence to schedules and discipline.
Jean Piaget Cognitive
Development
Assimilation Interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas
Accommodation Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
Sensorimotor Stage Birth to 2, infants use senses and motor abilities to learn about the world Object Permanence A child's ability to understand that objects still exist after they are no longer in sight
Preoperational Stage The stage (2 to 6 or 7) during which a child learns to use language
Babbling stage beginning at 4 months, vocalizes various sounds "ba-ba-ba" One-Word Stage Ages one and two, child speaks mostly in single words "Car"
• Egocentrism Inability on the part of a child in the preoperational stage of development to see any point of view other than their own
• Conservation The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
Concrete Operational
Stage (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
Formal Operational
Stage (normally
beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
Lev Vygotsky, developed a theory of how the child's mind grows through interaction with the social environment
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Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD,
Range between the level at which a child can solve a problem working along with difficulty, and the level at which a child can solve a problem with the assistance of adults or more-skilled children Scaffolding Process in which a more skilled
learner, gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable
Gender Identity The individual's sense (psychological) of being male or female, both, or neither from cultural and social expectations
Gender Roles Set of expectations held by society about the ways in which men and women are supposed to behave based on their gender
• Synaptic Pruning
Selective removal of unnecessary neurons and connections to improve brain efficiency (during puberty)
Adolescent Egocentrism
Heightened self-consciousness, belief that others are as interested in them as they are themselves, their sense of personal uniqueness and invulnerability
Lawrence Kohlberg, development of moral reasoning
• Level 1 Preconventional, values in external events
Stage 1, punishment avoidance
Stage 2: "Getting what you want" by trade-off
Level 2 Conventional, performing right roles
Stage 3, Meeting expectations of others Stage 4, Fulfilling duties & upholding laws
Level 3 Postconventional, shared standards, rights and duties
Stage 5, sense of democracy
Stage 6, self-selection of universal principles
MOTIVATION, EMOTION, PERSONALITY 11%-15%
• Instinct Theory "The
Evolutionary Perspective"
People are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are
evolutionarily/genetically programmed to do so with survival instincts
• Incentive Theory We are pulled into action by-positive or negative outside incentives
• Yerkes-Dodson Law
Increased arousal can help improve
performance, but only up to a certain point. At the point when arousal becomes excessive, performance diminishes
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow suggested that people are motivated by a hierarchy of needs
Bottom-Up, Psychological needs, safety needs, belongingness & love needs, esteem needs, self actualization
Self-Fulfillment needs
tell potential.
Esteem neods:
prestige and foeling of accomplishment
Belongingness and love needs:
inmard Telenonshes. tmends
Safety needs: security, sofely
Physiological needs:
Psychological needs
Basic needs
• Self-efficacy is a person's belief in their ability to succeed in a particular situation
Hypothalamus Mos biological feeling ofn comes from this brain structure
Lateral hypothalamus
(LH) "Hungry" The "on" button for eating. If stimulated, causes you to feel hunger
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
"Full"The "off" button for eating. when stimulated, makes you feel full
Intrinsic Motivation
Behavior that is driven by internal rewards autonomy, mastery, purpose
Extrinsic Motivation
Behavior that is driven by external rewards such as money, fame, grades, and praise
Overjustification Effect phenomenon in which-being rewarded for doing something actually diminishes intrinsic
motivation to perform that action
Approach-Approach
Conflict Conflict within a person where he or she needs to decide between two appealing goals
Avoidance-Avoidance
Conflict Making a decision between two equally undesirable choices
Approach-Avoidance
Conflict Conflict involves making decisions about situations that have both positive and negative consequences
Sexual Response Cycle (William Masters &
Virginia Johnson 1966), stages humans go through during sexual interaction
Display Rule A social group or culture's informal norms about how to appropriately express emotions
Common-Sense Theory
Theory in which a stimulus leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily arousal through the autonomic nervous system
James-Lange Theory
Emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events
Facial Feedback
Hypothesis Facial expressions are connected to experiencing emotions
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotions Suggests that the physical and
psychological experience of emotion happen at the same time and that one does not cause the other
Schachter-Singer
Two-Factor Theory The physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual must identify the reason for this arousal to experience and label it as an emotion
Stimulus
Perception/ interpretation
Contex!
Particular emotion experienod
Ferdhack
positive events
Distress Occurs when people experience unpleasant and undesirable stressors
• General Adaptation
Syndrome (GAS)
Researched by Hans
Selye, the three stages of the bodies psychological reaction to stress
1. Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion
Locus of Control Refers to the extent to which people feel that they have control over the events that influence their lives
Internal Locus of Control You believe that you have control over what happens
External Locus of Control
Blame outside forces for their circumstances
Psychoanalytic Theories
Sigmund Freud developed theory of personality development
Id Part of the human personality that is made up of all our inborn biological urges that seeks out immediate gratification (pleasure principle
Ego The largely conscious,
"executive"
part of personality that, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality (reality principle)
Superego The part of personality that, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations (morality principle)
Defense mechanisms Freud proposed that the ego protects itself with tactics that reduce or redirect anxiety by distorting reality
Defense Mechanisms
Repression Acts to keep information out of conscious awareness
Displacement Involves taking out our frustrations, feelings, and impulses on people or objects that are less threatening
Projection Involves taking our own unacceptable qualities or feelings and ascribing them to other people
Regression When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon coping strategies and revert to patterns of behavior used earlier in development
Denial Functions to protect the ego from things with which the individual cannot cope
Rationalization Involves explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational or logical manner, avoiding the true reasons for the behavior
Reaction-Formation
Reduces anxiety by taking up the opposite feeling, impulse, or behavior
Carl Jung thought all people shared a collective unconscious. Common collection of images that we have gained together as human beings from our ancestral & evolutionary past
Alfred Adler People
compensate for inferiority complexes based on inadequacies
Karen Horney feminist Perspective to psychoanalytic theory
Thematic Apperception
Test (TAT) Projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
Rorschach Inkblot Test (Hermann Rorschach)
The most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, During the test, participants are shown the inkblots and asked what each one looks like
• Reciprocal Determinism
Albert Bandura proposed that the person, environment, and behavior interact to determine patterns of behavior and thus personality
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Raymond Cattell's 16
Traits 16 traits are the source of all human personality
Factor analysis he identified closely related terms and eventually reduced his list to just 16 key personality traits
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The Big Five Personality
Factors Model of personality traits, many researchers believe that they are five core personality traits
• Openness to Experience, tendency to appreciate new art, ideas, values, feelings and behaviors
• Conscientiousness tendency to be careful, on-time for appointments, to follow rules, and to be hardworking Extraversion, tendency to be talkative, sociable, and to enjoy others
Agreeableness tendency to agree and go along with others rather than to assert one's own opinions & choices
Neuroticism tendency to frequently experience negative emotions
Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory-2
(MMPI-2) The most widely used and researched clinical assessment tool used by mental health professionals to help diagnose mental health disorders
Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI)
Self-report inventory designed to identify a person's personality type, strengths, and preferences
(-) Studies have found that the reliability and validity of the instrument have not been adequately demonstrated
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
8%-10%
Conformity The act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms
Normative influence
"Social Norm" Influence that produces conformity when a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant
Stanley Milgram (1963)
Measured the willingness to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscious
26 out of the 40
participants (65%)
delivered the ultimate punishment of 450 volts
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Social Facilitation process whereby th presence of others enhances performance easy tasks but impairs performance on difficult tasks
Social Inhibition performance is poorer
When watched by others
Social Loafing Tendency of individuals to put forth less effort when they are part of a group
Deindividuation The loss of a person's sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior
Group Polarization The exaggeration of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members through group discussions
Groupthink A group decision-making style characterized by an excessive tendency among group members to seek concurrence
Prejudice
“prejudgement”
Unjustified Negative attitude about a group of people based on their membership in the group Discrimination Unjustified
Negative behavior toward members of a target group (individual level) based on their race, ethnicity, or other shared characteristic
Stereotype Threat A situation in which people feel at risk of performing as their group is expected to perform
In-Groups Group that we identify with "us" or see ourselves as belonging to Out-Groups Social groups with whom a person does not identify; "them"
The Frustration-Aggression Principle The idea that people become aggressive when they're frustrated by being blocked from reaching a goal
Bystander Effect
Phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely people are to help a person in distress (diffusion of responsibility
Altruism The unselfish concern for other people; doing things simply out of a desire to help, not because you feel obligated to Social Exchange Theory Argues that altruism only exists when the benefits outweigh the costs-i.e., when your behavior helps you even more than it helps the other person
Reciprocity Social expectation in which we feel pressured to help others if they have already done something for us Social Responsibility
Norm Societal rule that tells people they should help others who need help even if they may not repay us
Social Dilemma A situation in which a self-interested choice by everyone will create the worst outcome for everyone
Recently Added
Productivity & Finance
Utirtes
Familiarity "Mere
Exposure Effect" Liking someone occurs because of repeatedly seeing that person or thing
Proximity The closer together people are physically, the more likely they are to form a
relationship/friendship
Fundamental Attribution
Error Our tendency to underestimate the impact of situational factors and overestimate the impact of dispotional (personal) factors when assessing why other people acted the way they did
Self-Serving Bias
Tendency to blame external forces when bad things happen and to give ourselves credit when good things happen
Actor-Observer Bias Tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes while attributing other people's behaviors to internal causes
False Consensus Effect
Tendency to overestimate how much other people agree with us
Just-World Phenomenon
Tendency to believe that the world is just and that people get what they deserve
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy prediction that causes itself to come true due to the simple fact that the prediction was made
• Central Route of
Persuasion The process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments
Peripheral Route of
Persuasion The process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues
Foot-In-The-Door
Phenomenon Tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
Door-In-The-Face
Technique Asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller
commitment and getting agreement
Cognitive Dissonance (Leon Festinger 1957):
Sense of discomfort or distress that occurs when a person's behavior does not correspond to that person's attitudes
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
12%-16%
• Psychologist- can't prescribe meds, supports people through
.
psychotherapy
meds, identify
Psychiatrist-can prescribe disorders/diagnose,
hospitals
generally works inside
Currently, in the DSM-5, abnormal behavior is generally defined as...
Deviant, Distressing,
Dysfunctional, Dangerous
Deinstitutionalization
When better psychotropic drugs were created this movement began to remove patients who were not considered a threat to themselves or the community from mental hospitals
Anxiety Disorders
• Generalized Anxiety
Disorder (GAD)
Experience excessive anxiety under most circumstances and worry about practically anything
Panic Disorder Anxiety disorder marked by recurrent and unpredictable panic attacks
Specific Phobia Intense, irrational fear responses to specific stimuli
• Agoraphobia Afraid to be in public situations from which escape might be difficult or help unavailable if panic-like or embarrassing symptoms were to occur