ap psych unit 4

motivation

the force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do

instinct

innate behavior that is universal amongst a species

drive

an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need

need

a deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation

homeostasis

the body’s tendency to maintain equilibrium

yerkes-dodson law

the psychological principle stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than high or low

overlearning

learning to perform a task so well that it becomes automatic

lateral hypothalamus

portion of the hypothalamus that is involved in stimulating eating

ventromedial hypothalamus

portion of the hypothalamus involved in reducing hunger and restricting eating

set point

the weight maintained when the individual makes no effort to gain or lose weight

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness via starvation

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder where the individual consistently follows a binge-purge eating pattern

binge eating disorder

an eating disorder characterized by reoccurring episodes of eating a lot of food in a short period of time, during which the person feels a lack of control over eating

feelings of shame and guilt, eating alone, typically overweight

hierarchy of needs

maslow’s theory that human needs must be satisfied in the following order (the pyramid)

physiological

safety

love/belonging

esteem

self actualization

self-actualization

developing one’s full potential as a human being, the highest in maslow’s hierarchy, most people don’t reach it

self determination theory

deci and ryan’s theory that states that all humans have three innate needs:

competence (desired outcomes and goals), relatedness (warm relations with others), and autonomy (being in control of our own life)

not filling deficits, needed for survival and growth and to thrive

intrinsic motivation

motivation based on internal factors

competence/relatedness/autonomy/curiosity/challenge/fun

extrinsic motivation

motivation that involves external factors

incentives/rewards/punishments

self-regulation

controlling behavior in order to achieve desirable behavior or outcomes

emotion

a feeling or effect that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experiences, and behavioral expression

polygraph

a machine that monitors changes in the body to determine lying

james-lange theory

a theory that states emotions are a result from a physiological experience

cannon-beard theory

a theory that states emotion and physiological experiences occur simultaneously

two-factor theory of emotion

schacter and singer’s theory that emotion is determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling

facial feedback hypothesis

the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them

display rules

sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed

valence

whether an emotion is pleasant or unpleasant to experience

negative affect

negative emotions such as anger, guilt, and sadness

positive affect

positive emotions such as joy, happiness, and interest

broaden and build model

frederickson’s model of positive emotion that states the purpose of them is to broaden the scope of attention and foster the building of resources within an individual, seeing details and exploring environment

hedonic treadmill

the idea that any aspect of life that enhances happiness will only do so temporarily, since we eventually adapt to our environment

personality

a pattern of enduring and distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world

psychodynamic perspectives

theoretical views emphasizing that personality is primarily unconscious

id

freudian structure of personality involving unconscious drives, pleasure, and self expression

ego

freudian structure of personality involving the demands of reality and compromise between id and superego

superego

freudian structure of personality involving internal judgement of behavior and our conscious, “goody two shoes”

defense mechanisms

freudian terms for tactics the ego uses to reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

collective unconscious

jung’s term for the deepest layer of the unconscious mind that’s shared by every human being due to our ancestral past

archetypes

jung’s term for emotionally laden ideas and images that have symbolic meaning to everybody

individual psychology

adler’s perspective that states people are motivated by purpose, goals, and perfectionism instead of pleasure, becoming who you want to be

humanistic perspectives

theoretical views that emphasize personal growth and positive qualities

unconditional positive regard

roger’s construct involving being accepted, valued, and treated positively regardless of behavior

conditions of worth

the standards that one must live up to in order to receive positive regard

trait theories

theoretical perspective stating that personality consists of broad, enduring dispositions that lead of characteristic responses

THE BIG FIVE

five broad traits that describe the main dimensions of personality:

neuroticism, agreeableness, extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness

stereotype

oversimplified and untrue image of a particular group in society

fundamental attribution error

under-emphasizing situational factors

actor-observer bias

tending to justify your behavior by blaming it on situations and on character traits for others

situational attribution

blaming an outcome solely on circumstance

dispositional attribution

blaming an outcome solely on a character trait

elaboration likelihood model

how people process persuasive messages based on their own motivation and the quality of the message, central and peripheral route

central route

method of viewing persuasion that involves carefully analyzing information and in-depth thought

peripheral route

method of viewing persuasion that involves carelessness, simple thought process, and emotion

cognitive dissonance

discomfort when a behavior doesn’t align with personal beliefs

self-perception theory

observing our own behavior and duducing what attitudes are the causation

social comparison

assessing ourselves by comparing to another person

person perception

categorizing people based on impressions and inferences

perceptual cues

features of a stimulus that are used in judging and categorizing during person perception

foot in the door technique

getting someone to agree to a big task by starting out with small tasks initially

door in the face technique

getting someone to agree to a small tasks by starting with a big one, knowing that they’re going to deny the big task initially

self objectification

viewing yourself as an object or tool for something, rather than a real person and human with emotions and feelings

self serving bias

distorting reality to benefit your self esteem

good qualities/successes are because of our character, but bad qualities/failures are because of situations

false consensus effect

claiming your opinions and views are more common than they actually as a method of justification

conformity

a change in behavior in order to coincide more closely with group standards

informational social influence

the influence others have on us because we want to be correct

type of conformity, why we conform

normative social influence

the influence others have on us because we want to be liked

type of conformity, why we conform

obedience

behavior that complies with explicit demands of an individual with authority

deindividuation

reduction in personal identity and responsibility when part of a group

social contagion

imitative behavior involving the spread of actions, emotions, and ideas

following others, copying the group

social facilitation

improvement in performance because of the presence of others

social loafing

each person’s tendency to expert less effort in a group due to less individual accountability

risky shift

the tendency for a group decision to be riskier than an individual one

group polarization

solidification and strengthening of a position due to group reinforcement and interaction

more extreme values once part of a group

group think

maintaining group harmony over making the correct decision

social identity theory

Tajfel’s theory that social identity is a crucial part of self-image and positive emotions

social identity

the way individuals define themselves in terms of group membership

ethnocentrism

the tendency to favor our own ethnic group over others

prejudice

unjustified negative ATTITUDE toward an individual based on group membership

leads to discrimination

discrimination

unjustified negative ACTION toward an individual based on group membership

mere exposure effect

the more we encounter somebody, the more likely we are to develop attraction

the more you’re exposed to something, the more likely you are to end up liking it

consensual validation

we are attracted to people who are similar to us, validating each other

romantic/passionate love

love characterized by sexuality and infatuation

affectionate/companionate love

love characterized by companionship and affection

social exchange theory

theory that states social relationships involve equal changes of goods

investment model

how commitment, investment, and availability of other partners predict satisfaction and stability in relationships

anchoring

when the first thing you judge influences your judgement of all that follows

confirmation bias

favoring things that confirm your existing beliefs

backfire effect

when your beliefs are challenged, it can cause you to believe even more strongly

declinism

remembering the past as better than it was and expecting the future to be worse than it likely will be

just-world hypothesis

the preference for a just world makes one assume that it exists

ties in with bystander effect, “somebody else will be the hero and do it”

sunk cost fallacy

irrationally clinging to things that have already cost you something, not wanting to let go

dunning-kruger effect

the more somebody knows, the less confident they’re likely to be

framing effect

being influenced and swayed by context and delivery

in group bias

unfairly favoring those who belong to the same group

placebo effect

believing something is working, when it actually isn’t doing anything

halo effect

when someone’s attractiveness influences other judgements of them

bystander effect

assuming someone else will help in an emergency situation

availability heuristic

when judgements are influenced by what most easily comes to mind, what’s most readily available

belief bias

when a conclusion supports one’s belief, they rationalize anything that supports that belief

optimism bias

overestimating the likelihood of a positive outcome