Unit 10: Personality

Why is Freud still important in psychology and beyond?

1. Sigmund Freud was the founder of talk therapy (a form of mental health treatment that involves discussing and exploring thoughts, feelings, and behaviors with a trained professional)

2. Sigmund Freud influenced all the social sciences (literature, sociology, and philosophy)

3. Although outdated, Freudian Theory still is present today in analyzing mental illness, cognitive development, consciousness, and personality

What is the difference between psychoanalysis (the unconscious) and psychodynamics (neo-freudians)?

Psychoanalysis = Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.

• Personality is the dynamic interplay between conscious (what we know) and unconscious (what we feel) processes

  • Example in Context: You suddenly feel anxious around a certain person but don’t understand why—psychoanalysis suggests it could be due to an unconscious memory or association.

• The Unconscious

  • Our unconscious mind contains about 80% of our feelings and instincts 

  • According to Freud, the unconscious was a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories.

  • Psychoanalysis uses talk therapy to push our unconscious feelings to the surface

  • Freud developed techniques to bring unconscious thoughts to the surface, including:

    • Free Association: Saying whatever comes to mind without filtering it.

    • Dream Analysis: Interpreting dreams as expressions of hidden desires.

    • Freudian Slips: Accidental word slips that reveal unconscious thoughts.

    • Hypnosis: Used to uncover repressed memories.

Psychodynamics = In the 20th century, psychoanalysis dominated psychological theory. The Neo-Freudians, who practiced psychoanalysis, disagreed with Freud’s heavy focus on sex and instead focused on social influences in personality development. Their theories peaked in the 1920s and have since evolved into what is now known as psychodynamics.

• Psychodynamic theories: view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences

• Today, psychodynamics is mainly used in therapy, focusing on:

  • Past traumas and childhood development

  • Unconscious feelings

    *Most therapist who use psychodynamics incorporate other techniques such as cognitive and behavioral modifications (these focus on changing negative thoughts and behaviors into something positive —think fixed to growth mindset)

Example: A psychodynamic therapist helps a patient explore how early childhood experiences (not just unconscious desires) influence their current relationships and self-esteem.

1/2 of Freud’s main theories: What are the three parts of Freud’s personality theory, and how do they develop?

1. ID ("The Instincts")

   • Present at birth/infancy.

   • Personality only consists of the ID (wanting instant pleasure and not caring about rules or consequences) or Libido (the desire for sex)

     • All together, seeks instant gratification for desires (hunger, sex, aggression).

   • Example: A baby cries when hungry without considering anyone else’s needs.

2. Ego ("The Executive")

   • Develops in toddlerhood to balance the ID’s impulses with reality, only reaches maturity during adolescence

   • Operates on the reality principle—it makes logical decisions, using thoughts, judgements, and memories, to get what we want in a socially acceptable way.

   • Example: A child wants a toy but waits in line instead of grabbing it from another kid.

3. Superego ("The Morality")

   • Develops in early childhood as a sense of morality (what’s right and wrong).

   • Influenced by parents, society, and culture—it makes us feel guilt when we act selfishly.

     • Identification: where children incorporate their parents values into their superegos

   • Example: A student resists the urge to cheat on a test because they know it’s wrong.

How They Work Together:

• The ID wants to eat an entire cake.

• The Superego says, “That’s unhealthy and greedy.”

• The Ego compromises: “I’ll eat one slice now and save the rest.”

2/2 of Freud’s main theories: What are the five psychosexual stages in Freud’s personality development theory?

Freud believed that as we age the ID focuses on the needs of our erogenous zones (sensitive body areas) through 5 stages. If a person gets stuck in a stage, they may develop fixations (a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, due to unresolved conflicts).

1. Oral Stage (0-18 months - infancy)

   • Focus: Pleasure from sucking, biting, and chewing.

   • Fixation Example: If weaned too early, an adult may chew on pens, smoke, or overeat to satisfy oral needs.

2. Anal Stage (3 years - toddlerhood)

   • Focus: Toilet training and control over bodily functions.

   • Fixation Example: Strict toilet training may lead to an "anal-retentive" personality—overly neat, controlling, or perfectionist.

3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years - early childhood)

   • Focus: Developing sexual identity and attraction to the opposite-sex parent (Oedipus/Electra Complex - state that young boys develop unconscious romantic feelings for their mothers and see their fathers as rivals (Oedipus complex), while young girls supposedly feel a similar attraction toward their fathers (Electra complex)).

   • Fixation Example: Unresolved conflicts in this stage could lead to relationship difficulties later in life.

4. Latent Stage (6-12 years - late childhood)

   • Focus: Dormant sexual urges; period where sexual feelings or desires are repressed or subdue and is channeled into other activities like school and social interactions.

   • Fixation Example: No major fixations—this stage is more about social development.

5. Genital Stage (12+ years - adolescence)

   • Focus: Sexual maturation (aka puberty, is the process by which a person becomes capable of reproduction) and forming relationships.

   • Example: A healthy transition into adulthood involves forming mature romantic relationships.

How does Freud explain anxiety and human nature using Eros and Thanatos?

Freud believed human nature is shaped by two opposing forces that are parts of the ID:

1. Eros (Life Drive) – The drive for love, pleasure, and survival.

   • Example: Seeking relationships, enjoying art, or pursuing creative passions.

2. Thanatos (Death Drive) – The drive toward destruction, aggression, and self-destruction.

   • Example: Engaging in reckless behavior or self-sabotaging relationships.

How They Interact:

• A balance between Eros and Thanatos is key to emotional health.

• Too much Thanatos → destructive behavior.

• Too much Eros → overindulgence (e.g., addiction).

  • Thus, it can be stated that Eros and Thanatos are the cause of and the solution to much of our anxiety

What are Freud’s defense mechanisms against anxiety?

Freud believed anxiety comes from conflict between the ID, Ego, and Superego. To cope, we unconsciously use defense mechanisms to reduce stress. (supposedly, these mechanisms are the egos protective methods of reducing anxiety by distorting reality unconsciously)

1. Denial – Refusing to accept reality.

   • Example: A smoker insists smoking isn’t harmful despite clear evidence.

2. Repression – Hiding true thoughts/feelings. On a more intense level - banishing anything that causes anxiety from consciousness.

   • Example: A person who experienced childhood trauma has no memory of it.

3. Projection – Attributing one’s own feelings to someone else.

   • Example: A cheating partner accuses their spouse of being unfaithful.

4. Displacement – Taking out emotions on an innocent person.

   • Example: Yelling at a friend after getting scolded by a teacher.

5. Regression – Reverting to an earlier stage of development/returning to an easier time.

   • Example: A stressed college student starts sucking their thumb.

6. Rationalization – Creating excuses to justify behavior (making your own facts).

   • Example: “I failed the test because the teacher hates me,” rather than admitting lack of study.

7. Sublimation – Redirecting negative energy into something positive.

   • Example: Someone with aggressive tendencies becomes a boxer.

8. Reaction Formation – Acting opposite to one’s true feelings.

   • Example: A person secretly struggling with self-doubt acts overly confident.

What Were Carl Jung’s Contributions to Psychodynamic Theory?

Divided the unconscious into Personal (repressed thoughts) and Collective (universal experiences):

• Personal Unconscious: A place where repressed thoughts, memories, and emotions are stored. Includes complexes (emotionally charged ideas) and personas (masks we wear in different social settings).

  • Repressed Thoughts Example: A person who was bullied as a child avoids social situations but doesn’t consciously remember the bullying.

  • Complexes Example: Inferiority Complex: Someone constantly seeks validation because they subconsciously feel inadequate.

  • Personas Example: A person acts confident and outgoing at work but is deeply insecure in private

• Collective Unconscious: A universal layer of the unconscious shared by all people, explaining cultural similarities and containing archetypes (universal symbols like the Hero, the Shadow, or the Wise Old Man).

  • Example: Fear of the dark, snakes, or heights—common fears that may have helped early humans survive.

  • Example: Different religions and traditions emphasize a struggle between good and evil.

Personality Types: Jung divided people into thinking vs. feeling, sensing vs. intuition, and introversion vs. extroversion (MBTI).

How Did Alfred Adler Explain Personality Development?

• Ego over unconscious: Adler believed people actively strive for success rather than being controlled by unconscious desires.

• Inferiority Complex: If children feel weak or unimportant (basically inferior), they may compensate as adults through excessive competitiveness, aggression, or social withdrawal.

• Birth Order Theory: A child’s position in the family influences their behavior, emotions, and personality.

  • Oldest children: Responsible but may feel pressure.

  • Middle children: Competitive and may feel overlooked.

  • Youngest children: Often spoiled or rebellious.

  • Only children: May struggle with sharing attention.

Example: A younger sibling who always tries to prove themselves by excelling in school or sports could be experiencing inferiority complex and birth order influence.

What Were Karen Horney’s Contributions to Psychodynamic Theory?

• Criticism of Freud: Rejected Freud’s sexist and penis envy theories (to define: stage in female psychosexual development where a girl realizes she lacks a penis and experiences envy of the male anatomy)

• Believed security as a key factor for development: basically a child’s sense of safety and stability shapes their personality and normality as adults.

• Believed adults behavior is tied to overcoming basic childhood anxieties, so she developed coping mechanisms:

  • Compliance (Moving Toward People) – Seeking approval and affection.

    Example: A person who feels insecure in their relationships may constantly seek approval from others, saying yes to everything even if it goes against their own desires, just to keep the peace and avoid conflict.

  • Aggression (Moving Against People) – Seeking power and dominance.

    Example: Someone who has unresolved childhood fears of abandonment might become overly competitive and constantly try to one-up their peers in order to feel validated and superior. This could manifest in cutting others down or being critical to mask their own vulnerabilities.

  • Detachment (Moving Away from People) – Withdrawing from social interactions

    Example: A person who feels emotionally unsafe or neglected may avoid close relationships entirely, distancing themselves from others to avoid the potential pain of emotional attachment.

What is the Rorschach Inkblot Test, How is It Used, and What Type of Test is it?

Developed by Hermann Rorschach, this test consists of a set of 10 abstract inkblots that people interpret.

• The way someone describes the inkblots is believed to reveal their personality structure and emotional problems.

• An individual's response to the inkblots could be linked to psychopathy (lack of empathy etc.) and other mental illnesses.

Example: If a person consistently sees violent images in the inkblots, a psychologist might explore unresolved anger or trauma in their past.

• This test is the most widely used projective test, which is, a personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli to trigger projection of ones inner dynamics.

What is the Terror-Management Theory?

This theory suggests that humans experience anxiety about death, so they adopt cultural beliefs and self-esteem to cope with the fear of mortality.

Example: A person who finds comfort in religion or nationalism may do so to reduce their fear of death and feel a sense of immortality.

What is Humanism focus, its theories, and what are some main points from Maslow and Rogers?

Humanism: Focuses on our motivations and future selves rather than on past experiences. Emphasis is placed on the self (the center of personality, organizer of thoughts, feelings, and actions).

• Is believed that People are happiest when their self-concept (their true nature and identity) aligns with their ideal self (who they strive to be).

• Self-Concept: The collection of beliefs, thoughts, and perceptions an individual holds about themselves, including their abilities, characteristics, and social identity (AKA “Who Am I”)

  • Example: Someone who views themselves as capable, confident, and a good friend has a positive self-concept.

Humanistic Theories: These theories emphasize personal growth, free will, and the inherent goodness in people. They focus on the individual's potential to grow and fulfill their highest potential.

• Example: A counselor might focus on helping someone develop a positive sense of self-worth, encouraging them to follow their passions and become the best version of themselves.

Maslow’s Self-Actualization: The process of realizing and fulfilling one's full potential and capabilities, often regarded as the highest psychological need. (Maslow - think back to last unit)

• Example: A person who strives to be the best artist they can be, constantly seeking new ways to express their creativity, is working toward self-actualization.

Rogers Unconditional Positive Regard: A concept by Carl Rogers where individuals are accepted and loved without conditions or judgments, which helps them develop a healthy sense of self.

• Example: A parent shows unconditional positive regard by loving their child no matter their successes or failures, allowing the child to feel worthy and capable of growth.

Roger’s Beliefs: believed that there is a natural tendency to want to grow, become healthy, and move toward self-actualization. Person-centered growth occurs through:

1. Genuineness – Being open with feelings.

   • Example: A person in therapy openly shares their fears and struggles without filtering.

2. Acceptance (Unconditional Positive Regard) – Being valued without conditions.

   • Example: A supportive friend loves you for who you are, not just when you succeed.

3. Empathy – Feeling and understanding another person’s emotions.

   • Example: A teacher who listens to a struggling student and reassures them.

What is grit and its relation it whether one has a growth or fixed mindset?

Grit: A personality trait that involves passion and perseverance for a long-term goal.

• Growth Mindset: belief that talents are not fixed but can be improved by facing obstacles and not giving up.

  • Example: A student who struggles in math but keeps practicing.

• Fixed Mindset: Assuming intelligence and abilities are unchangeable.

  • Example: A person who avoids challenges, believing they "just aren't smart enough."

What is the social-cognitive perspective, how do social-cognitive theorists explain personality and what experiment backs them up?

Social-cognitive perspective: A person’s behavior is shaped by both their personality (including how they think) and the people and environment around them.

Social-cognitive theorists see personality as shaped by reciprocal determinism, which is the idea that personality is a biopsychosocial phenomenon as opposed to a purely cognitive one. The three factors shaping personality being:

1. Environment: Where we are and what we experience.

2. Behavior/Cognition: How we act.

3. Internal Thoughts: What we think and believe.

• Example: A shy student (internal) avoids speaking in class (behavior), which makes peers ignore them (environment), reinforcing their shyness.

Bobo Doll Experiment: A child watches an adult hitting a Bobo doll. Later, when left alone with the doll, the child mimics the violent behavior, proving that observing aggression can influence future actions. However, the child still has a conscious choice. Some kids chose not to act aggressively, showing that personality isn't just shaped by environment alone.

What is the difference between self-efficacy vs. learned helplessness, personal control and how do they all together relate to the locus of control?

• Self-Efficacy: The belief in one’s ability to succeed.

  • Example: A musician who believes they can master a difficult song is more likely to practice and improve.

• Learned Helplessness (think back to dog exp.): The belief that one has no control, leading to depressive behavior.

  • Example: A student who repeatedly fails tests stops trying, thinking their efforts won’t matter.

  **Self-Advocates are less likely to experience feelings of hopelessness

Personal Control: the extent to which we perceive control over our environment

Locus of Control:

• Internal: Believing you control the outcome.

  • Example: "If I study harder, I’ll get better grades."

• External: Believing others determine outcomes.

  • Example: "No matter what I do, my teacher decides my grade."

What is Self, and how do the effects/tests show how self-control impacts success and behavior?

Self: in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

Self-Control: the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

• Marshmallow Test: Children who delayed gratification (resisting a marshmallow for a bigger reward) later had better grades and social success. —Basically, the ability to control one’s impulses predicts good adjustment, better grades, and social success

• Spotlight Effect: Overestimating how much others notice or judge us (leads to a lack of self-control and optimism). People with low self-esteem tend to experience this the most

  • Self-Esteem: ones feelings or high or low self-worth

  • Example: Thinking everyone sees a tiny stain on your shirt when most don’t even notice.

• Self-Serving Bias: Taking more credit for successes than failures/good deeds than bad ones.

  • Example: A student aces a test and credits their intelligence but blames the teacher for a bad grade.

What is Trait Theory and how does it describe personality?

Trait Theory suggests that all personalities can be described using a basic set of traits (characteristic patterns of behavior or a disposition to feel and act).

• Gordon Allport emphasized that understanding personality requires identifying an individual’s unique traits rather than generalizing.

Example: people who are consistently outgoing, talkative, and enjoys socializing, can be grouped to have high extroversion as a personality trait.

How does neurobiology vs. environment influence personality?

Nature (genes) vs. nurture (environment) plays a key role in shaping personality.

• Heritability Theory: argues that personality is largely inherited through genetics.

• Selective breeding in animals creates lifelong traits such as aggressiveness, sociability, and calmness (meaning that these traits can be passed down generation to generation).

However, environmental stimuli (upbringing, culture, experiences) also shape one’s personality traits.

Example:

• Identical twins raised separately often have similar personality traits, supporting the genetic influence.

• A shy child who grows up in a highly social environment may learn to be more outgoing, showing the environmental impact.

What is Factor Analysis in personality testing and what are some examples?

Factor analysis is a statistical method used to find clusters of related traits that define personality. Examples:

Raymond Cattell distinguished between:

• Surface traits (observable behaviors, e.g., being friendly)

• Source traits (underlying traits that drive behavior, e.g., sociability)

Hans Eysenck identified three main temperaments:

1, Extraversion vs. Introversion (social vs. reserved)

• Example:

  • High extraversion: A comedian who loves performing in front of a crowd.

  • High introversion: A writer who prefers working alone in a quiet space.

2, Neuroticism vs. Stability (emotionally reactive vs. calm)

• Example:

  • High neuroticism: A student who panics before every exam and overthinks mistakes.

  • High stability: A firefighter who remains calm and focused during emergencies.

3. Psychoticism vs. Socialization (impulsive/aggressive vs. considerate/controlled)

• Example:

  • High psychoticism: A rebellious rockstar who disregards rules and acts on impulse.

  • High socialization: A therapist who carefully listens and helps others regulate emotions.

What is the Five-Factor Model of Personality?

Created by Paul Costa and Robert McCarae, who stated that there are five traits that are influenced by genetics and predict behavior.

1. Openness (Imagination, Creativity, Willingness to Try New Things)

• Example: A traveler who enjoys exploring new cultures, trying exotic foods, and learning different languages.

• Low Openness Example: Someone who prefers routine, dislikes change, and sticks to familiar experiences.

2. Conscientiousness (Thoughtfulness, Responsibility, Goal-Oriented Behavior)

• Example: A student who keeps a planner, completes assignments on time, and studies with a structured schedule.

• Low Conscientiousness Example: Someone who procrastinates, forgets deadlines, and struggles with time management.

3. Extraversion (Sociability, Energy, Enjoying Social Interactions)

• Example: A party host who loves meeting new people, thrives in group settings, and enjoys public speaking.

• Low Extraversion Example (Introversion): Someone who prefers quiet environments, small gatherings, and deep one-on-one conversations.

4. Agreeableness (Cooperativeness, Compassion, Trustworthiness)

• Example: A volunteer who helps at a homeless shelter, listens empathetically, and avoids conflict.

• Low Agreeableness Example: A highly competitive person who prioritizes personal success over teamwork and struggles with compromise.

5. Neuroticism (Emotional Stability vs. Anxiety, Mood Swings, Stress Sensitivity)

• Example: Someone who frequently worries, gets easily upset, and overthinks minor issues.

• Low Neuroticism Example (Emotional Stability): A person who remains calm under pressure and bounces back quickly from setbacks.

What are self-reporting/personality inventories and what are the most effective personality tests?

Personality Inventories: a questionnaire (often true and false/agree and disagree) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits

Empirically Derived Test: a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

Example in Context: Imagine a test question like: "I often hear voices when no one is around."

• If people with schizophrenia tend to answer "Yes" far more often than people without schizophrenia, this question effectively differentiates (or "discriminates") between the two groups.

• The question would be included in the test because it helps identify a specific psychological condition.

So basically, an empirically derived test selects only the most statistically useful questions that clearly separate groups based on their responses.

Most Used: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

• Used to assess personality traits, especially in people with mental illnesses.

• Example: A psychologist may use the MMPI to diagnose a patient with depression or anxiety.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

• Based on Carl Jung’s theories, categorizes people into 16 personality types using four trait pairs:

  1. Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I) – Where do you get energy?

     • Extraversion Example: A person who loves networking, enjoys group discussions, and feels energized after social events.

     • Introversion Example: Someone who prefers solo activities, deep one-on-one conversations, and needs time alone to recharge.

  2. Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N) – How do you process information?

     • Sensing Example: A chef who follows precise recipes, values hands-on experience, and focuses on details.

     • Intuition Example: An entrepreneur who thinks about big-picture ideas, enjoys brainstorming, and trusts gut instincts.

  3. Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F) – How do you make decisions?

     • Thinking Example: A lawyer who relies on logic, evaluates pros and cons, and makes objective decisions.

     • Feeling Example: A therapist who prioritizes emotions, considers people’s feelings, and makes decisions based on values.

  4. Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P) – How do you approach life?

     • Judging Example: A project manager who sticks to schedules, plans everything in advance, and dislikes last-minute changes.

     • Perceiving Example: A traveler who prefers spontaneity, adapts easily, and enjoys flexible, unstructured plans.

What is the Dark Triad?

Certain personality traits are more likely to trigger violence or dangerous behavior than others, known as the dark triad. People with personality traits that fall within the dark triad normally need to have suffered from major childhood trauma and distress before they can start going around committing violent crimes.

The following is a description of three dark triad personality traits....

• Narcissism - egoism, grandiosity, and a lack of empathy (self-love and self-absorption)

• Machiavellianism - exploitation of others, indifference to morality, and only self-interested 

• Psychopathy - antisocial behavior, impulsivity, and remorselessness