mechanical reapers, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and refrigeration
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what energy sources became more popular as more countries had their industrial revolution?
oil, natural gas and nuclear energy joined coal
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what helped europe from technological and economic stagnation?
the small and competitive states
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europe’s economics and merchants
☆ european states were having trouble collecting taxes efficiently and royalty had a reliance on their merchants
☆ capitalist merchants could be granted special privileges, monopolies or collect taxes themselves
☆ governments encouraged commerce and innovation (offered prizes for inventions)
☆ merchants and innovators had relative freedom from state control
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what helped grow the european populations?
new resources from colonies such as maize, wood and fish
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europe growing from experiences with other countries
commerce and cross-cultural exchange → technological advances
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britain’s agricultural standing at the time of the industrial revolution
crop rotation, selective breeding for animals, light plows and high-yielding seeds → increased output, low food prices and lots of labor opportunities
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britain’s religious toleration policy
established in 1688, France still persecuted protestants and led to those workers fleeing to different countries
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unions were _______ in britain
forbidden by the law
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checks on royal authority
trial by jury, the growing power of the parliament →private enterprises had more freedom
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britain’s scientific revolution
focused on observation, experiment, precise measurements, and practical commercial applications
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improvement of the steam engine
backed by the discoveries of atmospheric pressure and vacuums
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british royal society
established in 1660, promoted knowledge through pamphlets
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britain’s textile industry
52 million lbs in 1800, and then 588 million lbs in 1850
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agriculture after the revolution
employed less than 8% of Britons in 1914
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effects of the revolution
the revolution drastically changed social life with new opportunities, a higher standard of living, and conflict
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the aristocracy of britain
☆ still owned the majority of the land, which was rented to tenant farmers
☆ tariffs on foreign agricultural imports were revoked in the 1840s, the aristocrat's political power declined
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the middle class benefited the ____ from the revolution
most
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the middle class
☆ they were mainly liberals and their ideals were of a constitutional government, private property
☆ social reform led to the Reform Bill of 1832 which made it possible for middle-class men to vote
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middle-class culture
☆hard work, strong morality, and cleanliness
☆ they believed the poorer classes had brought it upon themselves
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middle class women
☆ jobs were increasingly domestic
☆ although in the late 1800s, women took up professions such as nurses and teachers
☆ between 1881-1901 the number of female secretaries rose from 7,000 to 90,000
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the working class was ___ of britain’s population
70%
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life in cities
unsanitary and overcrowded
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friendly societies
☆ in 1815, 1 million people had joined
☆ support for sickness, funeral funds, and social opportunities
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1824
trade unions legalized, at first they were violent but they then became more respectable
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socialism and workers
as society grew more capitalist, socialist ideas spread through the working class
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socialism
a political and economic theory of social organization that advocates production, distribution, and exchange should be owned/regulated by the community as a whole
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capitalism
an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit
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Robert Owen
wanted better living conditions for workers and their families
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Karl Marx
☆ born in German but raised in England, where he saw the revolution firsthand
☆ he believed that industrial capitalism was unstable and society would eventually collapse into a classless socialist society
☆ he used the French Revolution as an example of how protests could lead to new societies
☆ believed he was a scientist, creating the laws of social development like Newton's laws
☆ had not thought of the middle class in his ideas or that workers could have better conditions in a capitalist society
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the Labour Party
established in the 1890s, supported peaceful transitions to socialism and believed in classical Marxism
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nationalism challenging the working-class radicalism
national loyalty > class loyalty in the First World War
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industrial revolution in france
more slow and had less impact on society
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industrialization in germany
focused on the heavy industry of iron, steel and coal instead of textiles, concentrated in large companies that were called cartels
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Alexis de Tocqueville
predicted that the US would become a global power after their revolution and Russia would become communist
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US in 1914
size of the country, the natural resources, the domestic market and somewhat political stability = world’s leading industrial power; produced 36% of the world’s manufactured goods
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the rising of british empires
☆ tax breaks, grants of public land to railroad companies, laws to aid the formation of corporations and the lack of regulation helped
☆ ex: the US steel corp. had a budget 3x more than the gov in 1901
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middle-class “culture of consumption”
started with Henry Ford making cars (model T) at an affordable price
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social equality and poverty in the US
relative social equality turned into a wealth gap that kept widening by the 1800s
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labor protests
☆ just like europe, conditions in large cities were poor and working class (mostly immigrants in america) had harsh conditions → led to labor protests
☆ when a railroad company announced the cutting of wages in 1877, people rioted violently and troops had to stop them
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union organizations in the US were mostly ___
conservative
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why were the unions mostly conservative in the US?
American populations were more diverse than European countries which made class-oriented political parities and socialists movements difficult and American workers had a higher standard of living than European workers
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progressives
wanted better sanitation standards, wage legislation and government intervention
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Russia’s political parties
the Tsar was the only political party that still had an absolute monarchy and had control over individuals
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Russian serfdom
up until 1861, most Russians were serfs that were exploited by their landowners
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changes in Russian society
☆ change occured when the state itself didn’t want to be surpassed by other states in europe
☆ administrative changes, strengthening of the military and new education system (only for sons of the nobility)
☆ Russian nobles were encouraged to dress and look like Europeans
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Catherine the Great wanted to _______ Russia, using the ___
europeanize, enlightenment
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Crimean War (1854-1856)
Britain v. France made Russian free serfs, seeing it as ‘incompatible with modern civilization’
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1900 Russia
ranked fourth in steel production and major industries, enterprises in Moscow, St. Petersburg and Kiev
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working conditions in Russia
factory workers had a growing resentment to the tsar and their employers, as there was 13 hour work days and unsanitary conditions
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1898
Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party was formed that was present in education and union organizing
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soviets
☆ a representative councils of workers
☆ that were created after the 1905 defeat to the Japanese
☆ the reform was crushed but it did start some change
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change in russia
☆ legalized trade unions and political parties
☆ elections of a National Assembly (called Duma)
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1906/1907
the Duma refused to cooperate with Tsar Nicholas II’s new system
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1914
Russia was 5th in output ranking but 1.25 million workers went on strike
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Russian Revolution of 1917
power to radical socialist groups (the Bolsheviks, at the time led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov aka Lenin)
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the vice-royalties of Spanish America
the four administrative units of Spanish America (vice-royalties) broke off into 18 separate countries
☆ peru and Bolivia reunited but then broke up (1836-1839)
☆ Mexico lost territory to the US (1846-1848)
☆ Argentina, Brazil + Uruguay went to war with Paraguay, who had a much smaller population (1864-1870)
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caudillos
military men who protected order and property
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Latin American constitutions
constitutions came in and out (ex: Bolivia had 10 different ones in the 1800s)
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Caste War of Yucatan (1847-1901)
Maya people vs. Europeans/mestizos
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impact of the steam ship
lead to increased connection
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more latin American exports (food, raw materials) to industrialized countries
☆ Mexico was the source of 50%+ of the world’s silver supply until 1860
☆ copper and nitrates from Chile, tin from Bolivia
☆ rubber from rainforests was in demand for tires
☆ in return, textiles, machinery, tools, weapons and luxury goods were imported
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influence of Europe on Latin America
☆ Urban cities grew and the elites drank tea while discussing European lit usually in languages like French
☆ Argentina had a wave of 2.5 m immigrants between 1870 and 1915 after promising a new life in the New World
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1906
a dictator named Porfirio Diaz hired the Arizona Rangers to suppress a strike that resulted in a dozen deaths
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Mexico’s revolution
☆ only in Mexico did the inequalities lead to a revolution
☆ a decade long battle fought by peasants (1910-1920) over the dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz resulted in the death of \~10% of the population
☆ they attacked large land plots (haciendas) to redistribute it
☆ ended in a new constitution in 1917 that had universal voting rights, redistribution of land, minimum wage, 8 hour work days and forbade the Catholic Church from being involved in public education
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the dependent development of Latin America
☆ with most of the population being poor, there was no market for goods
☆ growth was dependent on foreign demand
☆ Brazil’s rubber industry collapsed (1910-1911) when Britain turned to Malaysia for cheaper options
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the ‘Internationale’
the workers hymn about the possibilities of socialism and how it threatened the current capitalist society of Europe