anatomy seminar exam #2

describe the function of the right side of the heart.

to carry deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart/lungs to be oxygenated.

describe the function of the left side of the heart.

push oxygenated blood out from the heart/lungs to the body to be distributed.

during the circulatory cycle, deoxygenated blood is entering the heart via the...

superior (from the upper half of body) and inferior (from the lower half of the body) vena cava.

during the circulatory cycle, deoxygenated blood comes into the heart and enters...

the right atrium.

during the circulatory cycle, deoxygenated blood passes from the right atrium to the _____ via...

right ventricle; tricuspid valve.

during the circulatory cycle, deoxygenated blood exits the right ventricle via the _____ to enter the right or left lung to be oxygenated.

pulmonary valve.

during the circulatory cycle, deoxygenated blood enters the lungs to be...

oxygenated (CO2 exchanged of O2).

during the circulatory cycle, oxygenated blood enters back into the ____ of the heart.

left atrium.

during the circulatory cycle, oxygenated blood from the left atrium exits via the _____ into the...

mitral (bicuspid) valve; left ventricle.

during the circulatory cycle, oxygenated blood exits the left ventricle into the ____ via the ____ to be distributed to the rest of the body.

aortic valve; aorta.

what are the five (5) unique characteristics of the heart?

automaticity, excitability, conductivity, contractibility, and rhythmicity.

what is automaticity?

the ability of cardiac cells, particularly pacemaker cells, to generate their own electrical impulses spontaneously without external stimulation.

what is excitability?

the ability of cardiac muscle cells to respond to a stimulus (usually an electrical impulse).

what is conductivity?

the ability of cardiac cells to transmit electrical impulses to neighboring cells in a coordinated manner.

what is contractibility?

the ability of cardiac muscle cells to shorten (contract) forcefully in response to electrical stimulation.

what is rhythmicity?

the ability of cardiac cells, particularly pacemaker cells, to generate regular, rhythmic impulses over time.

what are the two (2) components of the cardiac cycle?

diastole and systole.

what is diastole?

when the heart is relaxed and the four chambers fill with blood.

what is systole?

when the heart is pumping and pumps blood out the chambers.

what is considered a normal sinus rhythm (heart rate/HR)?

70 BPM (60-100 BPM).

what are the two (2) arrhythmias associated with the cardiac cycle?

tachycardia and bradycardia.

what is tachycardia?

anything greater than 100 BPM.

what is bradycardia?

anything less than 60 BPM.

what is cardiac output (CO)?

the volume of blood the heart pumps per minute.

what is the calculation for cardiac output (CO)?

cardiac output (CO) = heart rate (HR) x stroke volume (SV)

what is stroke volume (SV)?

the actual amount of blood expelled into the aorta with each ventricular contraction.

what is ejection factor (EJ)?

the percent representing the amount of blood ejected relative to the amount received by the ventricle (how well the heart is pumping).

what is considered a normal ejection factor (EJ) for adults?

60%.

what is considered a normal ejection factor (EJ) for athletes?

higher than 60% (~70%).

what ejection factor (EJ) is an indicator of systolic dysfunction?

less than 40%.

heart rate (HR) is regulated by the ____ because it receives input from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves.

autonomic nervous system (ANS).

when stimulated, the sympathetic nervous system that prepares the body for fight or flight also ____ heart rate (HR).

increases.

through vagus nerve, the parasympathetic system slows down cardiac function, thus ____ heart rate (HR).

decreasing.

describe the seven (7) characteristics of arteries.

1) they carry blood away from the heart

2) they carry oxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary artery)

3) they have thick muscular walls

4) they have a pulse (under high pressure)

5) they are deep under the skin

6) they have no valves (except the semi-lunar valves of the pulmonary artery and aorta).

7) they have into tiny arterioles that join into capillaries

describe the seven (7) characteristics of veins.

1) they carry blood to the heart

2) they carry deoxygenated blood (except the pulmonary vein)

3) they have thin walls

4) they do not have a pulse (under low pressure)

5) they are near the surface of the skin

6) they have valves to stop back-flow of blood

7) they branch into tiny venues to join capillaries

what are capillaries?

small blood vessels acting as arteries and veins, surrounding body cells at the end of arteries and beginning of veins (where exchange occurs).

what is heart rate (HR)?

the frequency of the cardiac cycle or number of ventricular contractions per minute (BPM).

what is the normal heart rate (HR) for neonates (1 - 28 days)?

120 - 160 BPM.

what is the normal heart rate (HR) for infants (1 - 12 months)?

100 - 120 BPM.

what is the normal heart rate (HR) for children (1 - 8 years)?

80 - 100 BPM.

what is the normal heart rate (HR) for an adult?

60 - 100 BPM.

what is blood pressure (BP)?

a measure of the amount of force of circulating blood on the arterial blood vessels.

what is blood pressure (BP) typically measured with?

a sphygmomanometer (blood pressure release cuff).

when measuring blood pressure (BP), the first beat indicates...

systolic (the artery filling up with blood; the amount of pressure at the beginning of the cycle).

when measuring blood pressure (BP), the last beat indicates...

diastolic (the lowest amount of pressure during the relaxation phase).

what is the main artery used for blood pressure (BP) measurement?

the brachial artery.

what is the format for writing blood pressure (BP)?

systolic/diastolic

what is the normal blood pressure (BP) for a newborn (0 - 1 month)?

60 - 90/20 - 60 mmHG.

what is the normal blood pressure (BP) for an infant (1 - 12 months)?

70 - 100/50 - 65 mmHG.

what is the normal blood pressure (BP) for a toddler (1 - 3 years)?

80 - 105/55 - 70 mmHG.

what is the normal blood pressure (BP) for a preschooler (3 - 5 years)?

85 - 110/60 - 75 mmHG.

what is the normal blood pressure (BP) for a school-aged child (6 - 12 years)?

90 - 115/60 - 75 mmHG.

what is the normal blood pressure (BP) for an adolescent (13 - 18 years old)?

110 - 130/65 - 80 mmHG.

what is the normal blood pressure (BP) for an adult (18+ years)?

120/80 mmHG (90 - 120/60 - 80 mmHG).

what must the blood pressure (BP) reading be for the patient to be considered prehypertensive?

120 - 139/80 - 90 mmHG.

what must the blood pressure (BP) reading be for the patient to be considered hypertensive stage one?

140 - 159/90 - 99 mmHG.

what must the blood pressure (BP) reading be for the patient to be considered hypertensive stage two?

anything higher than 160/100 mmHG.

what is respiration?

the gas exchange between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries.

what is respiration (respiratory) rate (RR)?

the number of times the chest rises and falls with each breath that is inhaled and exhaled.

what is the normal respiratory rate (RR) for an adult (18+ years)?

12 - 20 breaths per minute.

what is pulse oximetry (pulse ox)?

a method of testing that reflects oxyhemoglobin saturation levels and changes in oxygenation (measures oxygenation levels).

what is the normal pulse oximetry (pulse ox) rate for an adult?

greater than 90 (95-100).

what is the normal temperature for an adult?

98.6 F.

what are the six (6) vital sign measurements that clinicians take?

1) heart rate (HR)

2) blood pressure (BP)

3) respiration rate (RR)

4) pulse oximetry (pulse ox)

5) temperature

6) pain level

inspiration and expiration are components of...

breathing.

what body structures are involved in breathing (inspiration and expiration)?

the upper (nose, pharynx, paranasal sinuses) and lower (larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs) airways.

breathing is considered a coordinated effort between the...

lungs, musculoskeletal system (ribs, muscles), and nervous system.

the right lung is composed of how many lobes?

three (3).

the left lung is composed of how many lobes?

two (2).

what is the purpose of inhalation (inspiration)?

to provide O2 to the tissues.

what muscles are involved in inhalation (inspiration)?

the external intercostals, (parasternal) internal intercostals, scalenes, and sternocleidomastoid.

(these muscles contract to move the rib cage up and out while the diaphragm contracts and moves down).

what is the purpose of exhalation (expiration)?

to remove CO2 from the body.

what muscles are involved in exhalation (expiration)?

the diaphragm relaxes and moves back up while the rib cage moves inward and down, forcing air out of the lungs.

what is ventilation?

the breathing in and out of air (inhalation and exhalation).

what causes ventilation?

the changes in pressure gradients from a high pressure area to a low pressure area.

what is perfusion?

the blood flow through the pulmonary capillaries.

what portion of the nervous system regulates our breathing?

the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

which endocrine gland releases dopamine?

the hypothalamus.

what is the function of dopamine?

inhibits the release of PRL (prolactin); usually functions as a neurotransmitter.

which endocrine gland releases prolactin (PRL)?

the anterior pituitary gland.

what is the function of prolactin (PRL)?

stimulates milk production in the mammary glands and affects sex hormones.

which endocrine gland releases corticosteroids?

the outer cortex of the adrenal glands.

what are the three (3) major types of corticosteroids?

mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and gonadocorticoids.

what is the function of mineralocorticoids?

(aldosterone) to regulate electrolyte and water balance by promoting Na+ absorption and K+ excretion by the kidneys (balance is vital in maintaining blood pressure (BP)).

what is the function of glucocorticoids?

(cortisol) to help the body adapt to stressful situations and help maintain plasma glucose homeostasis; increases glucose synthesis and glycogen formation, mobilizes fat and protein for energy needs and cellular repair, reduces inflammation, and suppresses the immune response.

what is the function of gonadocorticoids?

(androgens and estrogens) to assist in developing male and female sex characteristics.

what are the three (3) planes of motion?

the sagittal, frontal (coronal), and transverse plane.

what is the sagittal plane?

divides the body into right and left sides.

what is the midsagittal plane?

divides the body down the center (at the midline) into right and left sides.

what are the primary movements within the sagittal plane?

flexion and extension movements.

what is the frontal (coronal) plane?

divides the body into anterior and posterior positions.

what are the primary movements within the frontal (coronal) plane?

abduction and adduction.

what is the transverse plane?

divides the body into inferior and superior positions?

what are the primary movements within the transverse plane?

rotatory (rotation) movements.

what is an axis (of motion)?

the joint's center of rotation.

what are the three (3) axes of motion?

the frontal (coronal), sagittal, and vertical axes.

what is the frontal (coronal) axis?

the axis that runs medial to lateral.

which plane of motions is associated with the frontal (coronal) axis?

the sagittal plane.

what is the sagittal axis?

the axis that runs anterior to posterior.

which plane of motion is associated with the sagittal axis?

the frontal (coronal) plane.