Module 7 - sociology exam 2

Deviance definition

Violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms

Can include minor or major rule-breaking depending on the situation

Skipping class or talking loudly in a library

Crime definition

A behavior that violates official law

Punishable through formal sanctions (e.g., fines, jail time)

Theft

Social Control definition

The regulation and enforcement of norms

Maintains order and conformity in society

Two types:

Informal social control: enforced by peers or community (e.g., gossip, disapproval)

Formal social control: enforced by authority (e.g., police, courts, laws)

Informal: Parents scolding a child,

Formal: Police arresting someone

Social Control - Emile Durkheim

Social control is never perfect

“A society without deviance is impossible.” – Émile Durkheim

Reasons:

The collective conscience (shared morals/values) can’t prevent all rule-breaking

Deviance serves important social functions, such as:

Clarifying moral boundaries

Promoting social unity

Encouraging social change

Deviance - Relativity of Deviance

Deviance is normal — exists in all societies

Patterns of deviance can still be observed

Relativity of deviance: what’s considered deviant depends on context

Relative in space: behavior may be deviant in one society but acceptable in another

Example: Drinking alcohol is legal in the U.S. but illegal in some Middle Eastern countries

Relative in time: behavior may be deviant in one era but acceptable later

Example: Tattoos once viewed as deviant are now common and accepted

Explaining Deviance - Functionalism (Emile Durkheim)

Deviance is normal and serves important functions in society

Functions of deviance:

Clarifies social norms and reinforces conformity

Strengthens social bonds among people reacting to deviance

Can promote social change by challenging outdated norms

Creates jobs for certain social roles (e.g., police, judges, social workers) – Herbert Gans

Explaining Deviance - Functionalism (Social Ecology Theory)

Social Ecology: links deviance to neighborhood and community conditions

Certain social and physical characteristics of urban areas increase the chance of deviance and crime

Criminogenic neighborhood traits:

High poverty

High population density

Run-down housing

Frequent moving (residential mobility)

Many single-parent households

These factors cause social disorganization, making it hard to socialize children properly

Explaining Deviance: Functionalism Robert Merton - Strain Theory (Anomie Theory)

Explains why deviance varies by social class

In the U.S., society highly values economic success

Accepted means to achieve success: education, hard work, and persistence

Problem: Not everyone has equal access to these means

The gap between goals (success) and means (opportunity) causes strain or frustration

This gap = anomie (a breakdown of social norms)

People under strain may turn to deviance to reach goals

Robert Merton - Strain Theory: Five Adaptations to Strain

People respond to the gap between goals and means in five ways:

Conformity: accept goals + means

Innovation: accept goals, reject means

Ritualism: reject goals, accept means

Retreatism: reject both

Rebellion: replace both with new goals/means

Strain Theory - Limitations & Extensions

Limitations:

Ignores deviance by middle and upper classes

Doesn’t explain non-economic crimes (e.g., crimes of passion)

Doesn’t explain why people choose different adaptations to strain

Theories that expand on Merton’s ideas:

Differential Opportunity Theory (Cloward & Ohlin): access to illegitimate opportunities differs

Institutional Anomie Theory (Messner & Rosenfeld): cultural focus on success drives crime

General Strain Theory (Agnew): broader sources of strain, including emotional stress

Explaining Deviance: Functionalism Travis Hirschi - Social Control (Social Bonding) Theory

Assumes human nature is selfish → asks: Why don’t more people commit deviance?

Answer: Strong social bonds to society and institutions keep people from breaking norms

Four types of social bonds:

Attachment – emotional connection and loyalty to others (e.g., family, friends)

Commitment – investment in conventional goals (e.g., career, education)

Involvement – participation in activities that keep people busy and out of trouble

Belief – acceptance of social norms and moral values

Stronger bonds = less deviance

Explaining Deviance - Conflict Theory

Power and inequality shape definitions of deviance

People in power criminalize and marginalizethose who threaten their position

Laws are created to protect the powerful and control the less powerful

Inequality is reproduced through the justice system

Example:

Crack cocaine (used in poor areas): 50 grams → 10-year sentence

Powder cocaine (used by wealthy): 5,000 grams → 10-year sentence

Shows class bias in law enforcement

Conflict Theory - Criticisms & Key Ideas

Criticisms:

May overstate inequality in the U.S. justice system

Some argue the theory is too critical of the legal system

Support:

Evidence shows poor and minority groups face disadvantages in court

Discrimination often targets marginalized groups more harshly

Root of crime among the poor = social inequality and economic deprivation

Explaining Deviance Symbolic Interactionism– Differential Association Theory (Edwin H. Sutherland)

Deviance is learned through interaction with others

We learn how to commit crimes and the values, motives, and justifications behind them

Taught by close friends or family members

Shows that socialization (a normal process) can lead ordinary people to deviance

Explaining Deviance - Labeling Theory (Part 1)

Being labeled as deviant can cause a person to accept and repeat that label

Leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy → person adopts a deviant self-image

Society reinforces this through negative reactions and treatment

Example: Once labeled a “troublemaker,” a student may act out even more

Explaining Deviance - Labeling Theory (Part 2)

Asks: Who gets labeled as deviant and why?

Non-legal factors influence labeling:

Race, class, gender, and appearance

Example: William Chambliss’s “Saints vs. Roughnecks”

Both groups committed deviant acts, but the “Roughnecks” (working class) were punished more harshly

Shows how social status affects labeling

Crime and Public Opinion

Americans are very concerned about crime

Women fear crime more than men

African Americans fear crime more than Whites

Whites show more support for capital punishment

Types of Crime - Conventional Crime

People often fear strangers, but most crimes are committed by someone the victim knows (NCVS data)

Intrarracial: crimes usually occur between people of the same race

Males commit more crime than females

African Americans have higher arrest rates for conventional crimes

Social class affects the likelihood of committing these crimes

Types of Crime - White-Collar Crime

Committed as part of one’s occupation (e.g., fraud, embezzlement, insider trading)

Includes corporate crime – crimes by major companies or executives

Often more harmful than conventional crime:

Causes large-scale financial loss

Can lead to injury or death (e.g., unsafe products, pollution)

Evidence suggests white-collar crime harms society more overall

Types of Crime - Victimless Crime

Illegal acts in which all participants consent and there are no direct victims

Examples: drug use, prostitution, gambling

Debate: Are these crimes truly “victimless”?

Some argue they still cause social or personal harm

Philosophical question: Should people be free to harm themselves?

Sociological question: Do laws against victimless crimes cause more harm (e.g., overcrowded prisons) than the acts themselves?