Freshman English Honors 2025 Final Exam Study Guide

Characterization

• process by which an author reveals a character's personality, traits, and motivations
• helps drive the plot, reveals themes, and engages readers emotionally

Archetype

• an emotion, character type, or event that reoccurs across the human experience
• offer familiarity and allow the audience to relate quickly
• EX: Hero, Villain, the Jester

Symbolism

• adds depth and layers of meaning to a story, a shortcut to a deeper meaning
• allows authors to convey complex and abstract ideas in a subtle and nuanced way
• can engage readers, prompting them to think more deeply about the text
• can even foreshadow events

Allusion

• indirect references to well known people, events, or literary works
• can enrich meaning, connect with readers on a shared cultural level, and add depth to a work by relating it to other texts
• can convey information concisely

Dystopian Fiction

• acts as a cautionary tale, warning about the dangers of specific societal trends or political systems
• explore and challenge existing power structures, raise awareness about injustice, and inspire resistance or action against perceived threats
• authors use this to explore darker aspects of human society and provide cautionary tales about potential negative consequences of current trends

Shakespeare Literature

• affected and shaped English language, literature, and theater
• introduced new words, idioms, and phrases still used today
• explored universal themes of love, loss, power, and revenge
• authors allude to this, borrow plots and themes, and adapting and retelling this

Simile

• a comparison using "like" or "as"
• make writing more engaging and memorable by evoking emotions, creating imagery, and fostering empathy in the reader
• authors use this to enhance descriptions, evoke emotions and make their writing more engaging

Metaphor

• a comparison WITHOUT using "like" or "as"
• create vivid imagery, enhance understanding, and evoke emotional responses
• authors use this to create vivid imagery, add depth to meaning, and evoke emotion in their writing

Personification

• assigns human qualities, emotions, or actions to inanimate objects or abstract ideas
• make the abstract relatable, evoke emotions, and deepen the reader's understanding
• make descriptions more compelling, relatable, and memorable
• authors use this to create vivid descriptions, make concepts more relatable, and enhance the reader's emotional experience, make their writing more engaging and thought-provoking

Tone

• overall feeling or atmosphere of a piece of writing, reflecting the author's attitude toward the subject and audience
• shape the reader's experience and guide their interpretation of the text
• when used properly, an author can create a desired mood, convey their perspective, and connect with their audience
• can be achieved through diction, sentence structure, imagery, point of view

Mood

• emotional atmosphere or feeling a work creates for the reader
• establishes atmosphere, evokes emotion, enhances the theme and message, increases reader engagement, strengthens the narrative
• authors use this to evoke specific feelings and emotions in readers, shaping their experience of the text
• can be made through word choice, imagery, setting, and tone

Theme

• central idea or underlying message that an author explores throughout a story
• often relates to universal truths about life, human nature, or society
• adds depth and meaning, guides narrative elements, connects with readers, prompts critical thinking, offers a deeper understanding, enhances reader engagement
• authors use theme to convey a deeper meaning and purpose to their stories

Author's Purpose

• reason or motivation behind an author writing a particular piece of text
• to persuade, to inform, to entertain
• enhances comprehension, facilitates text analysis, guides interpretation, shapes text structure, impacts language and tone, diction, reveals author's perspective, facilitates reader response
• authors use their purpose to guide their writing, whether it's to inform, persuade, or entertain the reader

Imagery

• use of descriptive language that appeals to the reader's senses, creating vivid mental pictures and sensations
• creating vivid scenes and settings, evoking emotions and empathy, enhancing the narrative, conveying meaning and theme, "Showing, Not Telling"
• authors use this to create vivid mental pictures for the reader by appealing to their senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch)

Irony

• literary device and rhetorical technique that highlights a contrast between expectation and reality, can be surprising, amusing, or thought-provoking
• creating surprise and engaging the audience, deepening understanding of characters and themes, building tension and suspense, adding humor or emotional impact, satire and social commentary, encouraging reflection and critical thinking
• types: situational (actual outcome is the opposite of what was expected), dramatic (audience or reader knows something crucial that the characters do not), and verbal (speaker says one thing but means another, often sarcasm)
• Authors use this to create layers of meaning and complexity within their narratives

Foreshadowing

• literary device used by authors to hint at or suggest something that will happen later in the story
• a way to build suspense, create curiosity, and prepare the reader for future events or plot developments, often subtly
• builds suspense, creates curiosity, prepares the reader, adds depth and complexity, enhances narrative harmony, can by symbolic, can misdirect the reader
• Authors use this to hint at future events, building suspense and guiding the reader's expectations

Titles (underline vs. quotation marks)

• italics or underlining are for longer forms of work, ex: books, newspapers, magazines, movies, TV shows, albums, long musical works (operas, symphonies), plays
• quotation marks are for shorter forms of works, ex: short stories, poems, songs, articles, chapters, episodes

Apostrophes

• forming contractions by replacing missing letters
• indicating possession
• none are used in possessive pronouns (hers, his, yours, theirs, ours, etc)

Colon

• to introduce or announce a list
• to introduce or announce a quote after a complete thought

Semicolon

• joins two closely-related independent clauses to form a compound sentence
• place before a conjunctive adverb at the start of a new clause

Hyphen

• place between words to join them together to form a compound word (self-centered, mother-in-law, non-negotiable)

Commas

• combining clauses to create compound or complex sentences and avoid run ons
• use before a direct quotation.
• use after an introductory infinitive phrase
• use after an introductory word or phrase (*exception = must have two or more prepositional phrases in a row to require this)
• use to set off a parenthetical expression (an aside)- interrupter
• use to set off appositive (interrupter) phrases from the main clause
• use after a conjunctive adverb that begin or interrupt an independent clause
• use to separate non-restrictive clauses from main clauses
• use to set off names used in a direct address

Syntax and Structure

• avoid using passive voice unless the tone of the sentence requires it.
• use parallel structure when listing items or joining items with coordinating conjunctions.
• avoid misplaced modifiers

Of vs. Have

have is a helping verb (when it sounds like 'of') and must be followed by a main verb; of is a preposition and must be followed by its object (either a noun or pronoun)

Lay vs. Lie

Lay means "to place something down flat," while lie means "to be in a flat position on a surface." The key difference is that lay is transitive and requires an object to act upon, and lie is intransitive, describing something moving on its own or already in position.

To vs. Too vs. Two

to is a preposition and must be followed by a noun or pronoun; too is an adverb and must be followed by either an adjective or an adverb; two is a number.

Good vs. Well

good is an adjective and well is an adverb. Good modifies a noun; something can be or seem good. Well modifies a verb; an action can be done well.

Us vs. We

us is an object; we is a subject

There vs. Their

there = in that place or position; their = plural possessive pronoun

Than vs. Then

Than is used for comparisons; then refers to time or sequence

I vs. Me

I is a subject; me is an object

Your vs. You're

Your is a possessive adjective, indicating ownership or belonging; You're is a contraction of "you are"

Better vs. Best

Better = two things; best = more than two things

What do adverbs usually end in?

-ly

Comparative vs. Superlative degree

Comparative degree compares two things; Superlative degree compares one thing to a group of three or more.

What should you make sure to do when using a pronoun?

Make sure its antecedent (a word, phrase, or clause that a pronoun or possessive adjective refers to) is clear-- either in the first clause of the complex or compound sentence of in the immediately preceding sentence

Clause

A group of words that contains a subject and a verb that have a relationship. The relationship conveys information about what that subject is or is doing.

Subject (noun, pronoun, adjective)

The main noun or pronoun of a sentence or clause that commonly indicates (a) what it is about, or (b) who or what performs the action

Predicate (verb/verb phrase, adverb)

the part of the sentence or clause containing a verb and stating something about the subject

Object

a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb or is governed by a preposition

Complement

term used for a word or words that are needed to complete the meaning of a thought

Independent clause

A group of words that contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. Can be a sentence.

Dependent (subordinate) clause

A clause that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence because it does not express a complete thought.

Phrase

A group of words that stand together as a single grammatical unit, typically as a part of a clause or sentence. Does NOT contain a subject or verb and therefore cannot convey a complete thought.

Prepositional phrase (preposition)

A group of words that consists of a preposition its object and any modifiers (EX: "in time", "from her", "with much passion")

Coordinating conjunction

Are joiners. Can join an adjective with another adjective. Can join a noun with another noun. Can join a clause with another clause. FANBOYS!!

FANBOYS

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Compound sentence

Two or more separately but correctly joined INDEPENDENT clauses

Subordinating conjunction

Joins an independent and a dependent clause together correctly. This and a dependent clause are used to establish a time, place, reason, condition, concession or a comparison for the main cause.
EX: "although", "because", "if", "since", "before"

Complex sentence

an independent clause (a sentence that can stand on its own) with one or more dependent clauses added

Infinitive phrase

infinitive form of a verb plus any complements and modifiers. Functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

Appositive phrase

a noun or noun phrase that sits next to another noun to rename it or to describe it in another way. Usually offset with commas

Conjunctive adverb

a word (or short phrase) that provides a link to the previous sentence or independent clause. SURROUNDED by punctuation like a semicolon and a comma
EX: also, consequently, furthermore, however, incidentally, indeed, likewise, meanwhile, nevertheless, nonetheless, therefore, as a result, as a consequence, for example, on the contrary

Passive Voice

when the subject of the sentence receives the action of the verb, rather than performing the action. Basically the subject is ACTED ON not the ACTOR of the action.

Essential (restrictive) clause

a clause that identifies the word it modifies. Essential for meaning. NOT offset with commas.

Nonessential (nonrestrictive) clause

a clause that provides additional, non-essential information. NOT needed to identify the word it modifies. (like bonus information)

Parallel structure

when all the verb forms are the same throughout the sentence

"I want to go to the party, but I also want to go to the performance."

Compound sentence

The doctor, "a very intimidating man", declared that the child was making up his injury.

Appositive phrase

"Because you can't sit still, you need to take a break and come back when you can."

Complex sentence

The mother kissed "her child" goodbye.

Object

"Donna's poem" won the competition.

Subject

"In the blink" of an eye, your life can change forever.

Prepositional phrase

"The ball rolled into the street."

Independent clause

I was happy to help; "however", he was not interested in my assistance.

Conjunctive adverb

"Although many people think rock climbing is dangerous", I have never hurt myself when I follow protocols carefully.

Dependent clause

Jack studied diligently, "yet" he couldn't pass the organic chemistry final.

Coordinating conjunction

My brother "reads the New York Times every morning."

Predicate

The dog's coat was "very shiny."

Complement

"To have no regrets in life," you must decide what is important to you and pursue it.

Infinitive phrase

"While" many adults decide to have children, many others decide parenthood is not for them.

Subordinating conjunction

Anthony who won the race became the first one in our class to receive a trophy.

Anthony, who won the race, became the first one in our class to receive a trophy.

The teacher was annoyed when Hillary who lives right across the street from school was late.

The teacher was annoyed when Hillary, who lives right across the street from school, was late.

Anita who has no sense of humor couldn't see what made the joke funny.

Anita, who has no sense of humor, couldn't see what made the joke funny.

Have you heard of Lorraine Hansberry who was a famous playwright?

Have you heard of Lorraine Hansberry, who was a famous playwright?