AP Psych Vocabulary Chapter 6 - Learning

Learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

• Example: Classical conditioning (Pavlov’s dogs), Operant Conditioning (Skinner’s box with the rats pushing a lever for food), and Obervational Learning (Bandura with the child and the Bobo Doll)

Habituation

an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.

• Ex. Car alarms - caused reduced sensitivity

  • When they are repeatedly going off, you stop responding so shockingly to it

Associative Learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

• Example: When training an animal with treats when they are good, or punishments when they are bad

Stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response.

• Example: if a bell is rung every time food is presented, the bell becomes a conditioned Stimulus as it can cause salivation even without the food

Cognitive Learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

• Cognitive Learning Strategy: Sophia uses notecards on which she writes the word and draws a picture that represents the word to her

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

• Phobias are learned through classical conditioning

• Pavlov’s dogs salivating to a bell (CS) after its paired with food (UCS)

• Watson with LITTLE ALBERT and being afraid of white fluffy things

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Neutral Stimuli (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

• Example: In the Pavlov dog experiment, the neutral stimuli would be the bell before conditioning, but becomes the conditioned Stimulus after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned Response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

• Pavlov when the dogs salivate at the taste of food

  • Jumping at a loud bang

  • Flinching from a hot stove

  • Tearing up from Onions

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR)

• What causes someone to have an unconditioned response

  • Example: Food causing a dog to salivate (US - Food)

  • A loud noise making someone jump (US - Loud noise)

  • Smell of a favorite food making you hungry (US - Smell of a favorite food)

Conditioned Response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

• A dog salivating at a bell (CR) after hearing it paired with food (UCS)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

• Example: A bell signaling class ending (Bell - CS) (Stopping class - UR)

Adaptation

We get used to a continuous unchanging stimulus

• Ocean cold at first but not noticeable later on

Aquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

• During aquisition, a neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus

• After many trials, the neutral stimulus will gradually begin to elicit the same

• The dog’s process of learning to salivate at the sound of a bell (CS) after many pairings with food (UCS) is aquisition

High-Order Conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

• Step 1 (First-Order): Pavlov's dogs learn that a Bell (CS) predicts Food (UCS), making them Salivate (UCR/CR)

• Step 2 (Higher-Order): A Light (NS2) is flashed just before the Bell (CS1).

• Result: The dogs learn to associate the Light (New CS2) with the Bell and Food, so the Light alone eventually makes them salivate.

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

• Example: A child’s tantrums decrease when the parents ignore them for attention

  • A dog stopping a trick because it no longer is rewarded with a treat

Spontaneous Recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

• A child suddenly having a tantrum again after weeks of being calm

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

• We provide the same response to similar stimuli

• Example: all 4-legged animals are a dog - Mr. Lane’s kids when they went to the Zoo

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

• When people act in negative ways based on the differences that they see in others

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

• More complicated

• Learned Behavior - Skinner box with the rat learning to press a levar for food

• Actions followed by reinforces increase - when you do something and it is rewarded, you are more likely to do it again then if you are punished

Law of Effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

• Repeat actions with rewards and not those with consequences

Operant Chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

• Example: Skinner Box - rat pressing lever

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

• Example: for people… Praise, attention, or a paycheck

• Example: for animals… food and water

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

• When you move closer to a behavior with baby steps and guiding behavior

• Step by step when cleaning a room like Vita’s

Discriminative Stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

• It is a cute signaling that specific behavior will lead to reinforcement (reward)

• Example: A green light meaning go (press gas)

  • A ringing phone meaning to answer it

  • A parent’s command (clean up)

Positive Reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

• Example: A teacher giving praise or a sticker for answering correctly

  • A dog getting a treat for sitting

  • Earning screen time after homework

Negative Reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment)

• Example: Buckling in when you hear the annoying car alarm

  • makes you buckle in more each time you are in the car

Primary Reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

• Something that is naturally reinforcing

  • Example: Warmth, food, water, etc.

Conditioned Reinforcer / Secondary Reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

• Something that you have learned is a reward because it is paired with a primary reinforcement in the long run - good grades

• Another example: money, praise, tokens, privileges, etc.

Reinforcement Schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

• Example: Fixed Ratio

  • A coffee shop gives you a free coffee after you buy 10 coffees - makes you more likely to purchase those 10 coffees so that you get the free one

Continuous Reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

• Example: a dog getting a treat for every “sit”

Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

• Example: Gambling (slot machines) - sometimes you are rewarded heavily and other times the exact opposite

Fixed-ratio Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

• Example: After 10 coffees you get one for free

  • Makes you more likely to buy those 10 coffees because you know that you have a reward if you buy them

Variable-ratio Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

• Example: Gambling, fishing, door-to-door sales

Fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

• Example: bi-weekly paychecks

  • Weekly quizzes

  • Waiting for cookies to bake

Variable-interval Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

• Checking emails / social media

• Fishing - catching at random times

Punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

• Example: getting burned when touching the stove

Biofeedback

A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

• Example: Heart Rate, Thermal Temperature, etc.

Respondent Behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

• Example: Feeling hungry at the sight of a restaurant sign

  • Getting nervous hearing a dentist’s drill

  • Blushing when embarrassed

Operant Behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

• Student getting praise for answering (positive reinforcement)

• Driver putting on a seatbelt to stop the beeping (negative reinforcement)

• Getting extra chores for misbehaving (positive punishment)

• Losing phone privileges for breaking curfew (negative punishment)

Cognitive Map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

• For example: navigating a new mall from memory after a few visits

  • A rat learning a maze to find food

Latent Learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

• Example: Cognitive Maps

  • A passenger suddenly being able to navigate home after riding with a driver

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution.

• Example: puzzle solving, math/science problems, creative solutions, finding lost items, etc.

Intrinsic Motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

• Example: A student reading a novel for fun

  • Playing sports because you love the game

  • Baking because you enjoy the process

  • Learning an instrument just for the joy of creating music

Extrinsic Motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

• Example: A student studying for an “A”

  • Working for a salary

  • Doing chores for allowance

Coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

• Includes Cognitive Strategies (reframing thoughts), Behavioral Strategies (exercise, social support), and Psychological Techniques (meditation, relaxation)

Problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

• Example: Creating a study schedule for a tough eexam

  • Confronting a bully

  • Improving time management to avoid being late

Emotion-Focused Coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.

• Example: Taking a deep breath, meditating, journaling, seeking social support, prayer, humor, etc.

Learned-Helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

• Example: Using coping to help - deep breathing, meditation, etc.

External locus of Control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

• Thinking luck and fate control your life, not your own efforts - leads to blaming others for your own failure

• Example: Failing the test because the teacher dislikes you

  • Getting fired due to “unfair” coworkers

Internal locus of Control

the perception that you control your own fate

• You control your own destiny, leading to taking responsibility for successes and also failures

• Example: I got an A because I studied for the test

  • I lost the game because I didn’t practice enough

Self-Control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

• Example: Marshmallow test - wait to eat the marshmallow instead of eating the first one immediately

Observational Learning

learning by observing others. Also called social learning

• Example: Kids imitating parents’ mourning routines

  • Learning new skills like video games from siblings

  • Developing fears (like spiders) from a parent’s reaction

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

• Example: little kids modeling their behavior after the adults - Bobo Dolls (Bandura)

Mirror Neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

• Connection to the brain games experiment - fake hand and hammer

• Crucial for observational learning, empathy, and imitation

  • Explains why we learn by watching - a baby copying a parent’s wave

Prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

• Example: Donating, volunteering, comforting friends, sharing, mentoring, or intervening in emergencies