BIO 220 Comp. Final Review #2

microbiology

what is the study of living creatures too small to see with the naked eye. 

bacteria/fungi/protozoa/algae/viruses

This division of biology includes the study of ___, ___, ___, ___, ___ .

Deodorants

___ was used to reduce putrefaction.

Sodium hypochlorite

___ was used in Parisian morgues to reduce decay.

1820

in what year were Deodorants used to reduce putrefaction and Sodium hypochlorite used in Parisian morgues to reduce decay?

Ignaz S and oliver wendell holmes

___ ___ (a Viennese physician) and ___ ___ ___ requested that all physicians wash their hands between patients.

1840

in what year did Ignaz Sammelweis and oliver wendell holmes request that all physicians wash their hands between patients?

more women died in childbirth

what was the result of most physicians not washing their hands between patients?

he noticed a correlation between putrefaction in autopsy and puerperal fever in pregnant women

why did Ignaz Sammelweis request that all physicians wash their hands between patients?

Louis Pasteur

who noticed that it was microorganisms that fermented sugar to alcohol?

Louis Pasteur

who proceeded to culture bacillus anthracis and proved it to be a causative agent of the disease anthrax?

1850

in what year did louis pasteur notice that it was microorganisms that fermented sugar to alcohol and culture bacillus anthracis and prove it to be a causative agent of the disease anthrax?

joseph lister

___ ___ an English surgeon, used data gathered in operating rooms and from old bandages he picked up in the trash outside hospitals to propose that infections were due to ‘substances’ found around patients.  He began to use carbolic acid (phenol) to wrap wounds and to spray the air around the patient, which killed what he called ‘septic germs’?

1860

in what year did joseph lister began to use carbolic acid (phenol) to wrap wounds and to spray the air around the patient, which killed what he called ‘septic germs’?

robert koch

___ ___ (a German physician), continued Louis Pasteur’s work and He established that anthrax bacteria was always present in infected blood, and that the infected blood could transmit anthrax, and the bacteria was isolatable outside the animal.

1890

in what year did robert koch continue Louis Pasteur’s work and establish that anthrax bacteria was always present in infected blood, and that the infected blood could transmit anthrax, and the bacteria was isolatable outside the animal.

Alexander Fleming

who discovered penicillin and used it to cure various diseases. 

1940

in what year did Alexander Fleming discover penicillin and use it to cure various diseases, and develop a production process Along with Ernst Chain and Howard Florey?

Ernst C and Howard F

___ ___ and ___ ___, helped alexander fleming develop a production process.

1950

in what year did Joshua Lederberg, Edward Tatum, and George Beadle discover and work on genetic recombination in bacteria?

1960

in what year did Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod discover and elucidate control of enzyme synthesis. 

Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod

who is credited with the Lac Operon model of genetic control of enzymes synthesis?

1980

in what year did Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus discover that virus-encoded oncogenes originate in eukaryotic cells?

Michael B and Harold V

who discovered that virus-encoded oncogenes originate in eukaryotic cells?

1985

in what year did Kary Mullis invent polymerase chain reaction, a technique to amplify any DNA sequence?

Kary Mullis

who invented PCR, polymerase chain reaction, a technique to amplify any DNA sequence?

1997

in what year was Stanley Pruisher awarded the Nobel Prize for work on prions, ‘infectious proteins’?

Stanley P

who was awarded the Nobel Prize for work on prions, ‘infectious proteins’?

Types of Infective Agents

Bacteria                                                        Mycoplasmas                                            L-forms Fungi                                                             Rickettsias                                                   Viroids Viruses                                                         Spirochetes                                                Prions Protozoa                                                      Chlamydiae                                                DNA/RNA

archaea/bacteria/eukarya

3 domains of life

protists/fungi/plants/animals

biological classifications of eukarya

prokaryotes

No nucleus                                                  Small diameter/1-5 um                         Conjugation, transduction,

Simple membrane                                   No organelles                                            Transformation peptidoglycan in cell wall

One chromosome                                    Ribosomes are 70S

Bacteria/Bluegreen algae                     Simple flagella

eukaryotes

True nucleus                                              Complex, invaginated membrane                       Multiple chromosomes

Algae/fungi/protozoa                            Large diameter/10-100 um                                    Organelles

Ribosomes are 70S and 80S                 9x2 microtubular flagella conjugation              No peptidoglycan

the cell theory of the 1800s

A.     All living things are made up of one or more cells.

B.     The cell is the basic unit of life.

C.     All cells come from pre-existing cells. A microbe can be one cell or a cluster or colony of cells that work together.  Some pathogens are just infective pieces of RNA and DNA.

robert Kochs Postulates

1.     Identical microbe must be p resent in all individuals with the same disease.

2.     Microbe must be cultured outside the body.

3.     Microbes must induce disease when given to same species.

4.     Identical microbe must be isolated from newly diseased organism

viruses/protozoa/fungi/helminthes/bacteria

Food-Borne Pathogens:

viruses

Norwalk                                     Polio                                         

Coxsackie                                 

Echovirus                                           

Hepatitis A

protozoa

Entamoeba                               Giardia                                                               Cryptosporidium                                                  Balantidium

Toxoplasma

fungi

Aspergillus

helminthes

Trichina

Taenia

Trematodes

Nematodes

bacteria

Gram –Positive Genera                        

Gram-Negative Genera

Bacillus                                                         Erwinia                                      

Escherichia

Clostridia                                                     Serratia                                     

Pseudomonas

Listeria                                                          Klebsiella                                  

Campylobacter

Proteus                                       Yersinia                               

Bacteroides

Shigella                                     

Brucella

Gram Positive

___-___ Food Borne Bacterial Symptoms (usually produce toxins): Headache, dizziness, uncoordinated movements, numbness, and exercise-intolerant

Gram negative

___-___ Food Borne Bacterial Symptoms (usually result in infection): Abdominal cramps, malaise, tenesmus, diarrhea, hemorrhagic stool, vomiting and nausea

Eukaryotic DNA

a double alpha-helix strand 

Bacterial DNA

a double-stranded circle that twists on itself

genetic engineering

The isolation, manipulation, and expression of genetic material

site directed mutagenesis

to change an area as small as one amino acid

cloning

The isolation and amplification of individual genes utilizing plasmid vectors that is Used to move a gene from a complex genome to a simpler one

In Vitro Recombination

1. when DNA from mitochondria, host genomes, mRNAs (CDNA), or synthetic DNA is isolated and fragmented. 

2. This DNA is joined to a vector at a restriction site (generated using restriction endonucleases) using DNA ligase.  Upon transfection of the vector (plasmid) into an appropriate host cell, large amounts of the plasmid are produced, as well as the inserted DNA gene product.  Most plasmid vectors are purposely disabled from being transferred via conjugation.  A standard plasmid vector for E. coli is pBR322.

codon

DNA or RNA sequence of three nucleotides that forms a unit of genomic information encoding a particular amino acid or signaling the termination of protein synthesis (stop signals

20

how many amino acids are ther?

64

how many possible triplet sequences are there?

Conjugation

___ is the sexual joining and sharing of genetic material between appropriate mating types

Transformation

___ is the one-way sharing of genetic information between bacterial cells in a more passive sense; a diffusion type of transfer. 

Transfection

The transfer of genetic material from viruses to cells.  Example: the transfer of genetic material by the T-even bacteriophages to and from bacteria.

Recombination

when Genetic material is dynamic and mutates as needed to accommodate assaults or changes. 

Transduction

when Viruses or phage attack bacterial cells, attach, and insert their genetic material into the cytoplasm.

Lytic/lysogenic Transduction

the 2 major types of transduction are:

Lytic Transduction/Virulent

when phage nucleic acid takes over and destroys bacterial DNA after 100-300 complete phage are made.

Lysogenic Transduction/Temperate

1. when Prophage DNA/RNA is inserted into the bacteria and integrated into the host chromosome, and The prophage encodes a repressor that blocks virus replication.

2. Without the repressor, the virus replicates and the cell lysis.  If this repressor does not work, the cycle becomes lytic.

glycolysis

This is the main mechanism by which sugars are utilized in the cells of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, and It is also the first step of substrate-level phosphorylation if fermentation is occurring (in the absence of oxygen).

TSP Broth

Typical media used for general culturing, it has all of the nutrients most bacteria require.  It is a uniform light brown.

Blood Agar

1. Agar, supplemented with sheep red blood cells, and is one of the most common media used to plate bacteria.  it is also used to diagnose strep throat.

2. Throat swabs are streaked onto it to test for the presence of beta-hemolytic streptococci.  These bacteria release hemolysis that lyse the red blood cells contained in the agar.

Selective Media

An example is media with bile salts and bright green dye.  This selects for Gram-negative organisms because Gram-positive bacteria will not grow under these conditions.

Differential Media

Hektoen’s agar allows the visualization of Escherichia coli  because it contains lactose, which is fermented to acid by E. coli and not used by many other enteric bacteria.

Enrichment Media

1. Normal broth or agar is enriched with an unusual nutrient that the bacteria being studied requires for growth. 

2. Selenite, for example, is used to select  for Salmonella cultures.

acid fast stain

Mycobacteria retain a carbolfuchsin red after an acid alcohol wash.  A methylene blue counterstain is used to stain non-acid fast organisms blue.

simple stain

A basic dye is used to color the sample

negative stain

A dye with a ___ stain is used to color the background of a slide since the bacteria will not take up a ___ charged stain.

gram stain

Crystal violet, iodine, alcohol, and safranin red are used. 

1. Gram-positive bacteria retain the crystal violet stain and appear purple-blue. 

2. Gram-negative bacteria lose the blue color and pick up the red of the safranin counterstain.

Dark Field Microscope

a special light condenser that produces a hollow cone of light.  Microbes appear white against a black background.

light Microscope

a microscope that has objectives that are located on a turning turret below the oculars, allowing selection of different magnifications as light passes through.

Phase Contrast Microscope

This microscope allows small, dense particles like internal organelles to be viewed without staining.

Scanning Electron Microscope

this microscope has the ability to display the surface of an object using electrons as a fine probe.

Transmission Electron Microscope

this microscope has a resolution of greater than 1 nm and allows the viewing of organelles, subcellular components, and even macromolecules. 

Photoautotrophs

Uses light energy to convert CO2 and H2O to organic compounds.  Ex. Green algae

Photoheterotrophs

Uses light energy to convert organic carbon to useful organic compounds.  Ex. Purple or green bacteria

Chemoautotroph

Uses energy from H2S, NH3, and iron to convert CO2 to useful organic compounds.  Ex. Phototrophic/Nitrobacter

Chemoheterotrophs

Uses organic molecules as a source of energy and carbon.  Saprobes live off dead matter and parasites live off host body fluids.  Ex.  Myxococcus

Nitrogen conversion

Nitrosomonas can convert ammonia (NH3) to the more usable form, NO2.  Several other chemoautotrophic bacteria can do this as well.        NH3-------→NO2

Nitrogen fixation

Cyanobacteria can “fix”, or make available, atmospheric nitrogen.  Most living creatures cannot use atmospheric nitrogen to make protein.  They must have a source of organically bound nitrogen, nitrogen oxides or ammonia.

  N2 ----------→NH3

Denitrifying to atmospheric nitrogen

Pseudomonas species can denitrify NO2 or NO3 to atmospheric nitrogen.  As facultative anaerobes, this allows them to use the oxygen for more efficient energy production.

Microaerophilic/microbes

1. These organisms need small amounts of oxygen and higher concentration of CO2; high oxygen concentration inhibits growth. 

2. Examples: Certain strains of Streptococcus sanginosus, Streptococcus mitis, Streptococoous mutans  

Psychrophiles

Cold-tolerant bacteria like listeria create serious problems in foods.

Extreme halophiles

Can live in water with extreme salinity (up to 20%).  Membrane-bound bacteriorhodopsin uses light to pump out H+ ions. 

Spore formers

Bacteria like Clostridium often encyst or form endospores to protect themselves from drying out or from excessive heat or cold.  These spores are very resistant to harsh conditions due to their thick cell walls.

Methanogens

Anaerobic decomposers, these bacteria use hydrogen to reduce carbon dioxide to methane in swamps and cattle intestines.

Thermoacidophiles

These bacteria are tolerant of temperatures up to 80C.  They also prefer a pH of 1-4.  They can be found in geysers and hot springs.

cerevisiae Yeast

Saccharomyces ___ Used in bread, beer, and wine-making, varieties of this organism and related genera are vitally important to these industries.

carlsbergensis Yeast 

Saccharomyces ___ Used in lager beer-making

rouxii Yeast

Saccharomyces ___  Used to make soy sauce

Lactococcus lactis Bacteria

Producer of bacteriocins, metabolites which kill other bacteria, especially sporeformers like Clostridia botulinum.  These cocci protect the public from botulism in dried sausage that is lower in nitrate.

Creates lactic acid for fermentation of sauerkraut

Leuconostoc mesenteroides Bacteria

Used to make vinegar

Acetobacter and Gluconobacter species bacteria

Used to make B vitamin riboflavin

Ermothecium ashbyi

Blastospores

Yeast can reproduce by fission, sporulation or budding.  Budding, or blastospore formation, is the most common method.  A piece of the mother cell surface bubbles out and enlarges, producing a “bud”.

asexual reproduction of fungi

Blastospores/ Chlamydospores/ Arthrospores/ Conidiospores/ Sporangiospores

sexual reproduction of fungi

Basidiospores/ Ascospores/ Zygospores/ Oospores

Chlamydospores

Resting spores found in old dry cultures, they are produced when the hyphae swell and create a thick wall around themselves.

Arthrospores

When hyphae break apart, tube-shaped thick spores, called ___ are formed.