Motor Development Exam 2 Review

survival responses

sucking and rooting -> feeding

Asymmetric tonic neck reflex (ATNR)

vestibular, sensory feedback from object, links the action with the consequences of the action

Babinski reflexes

(stroking/swiping foot -> big toe goes toward top of foot and the other toes fan out) building block for future walking; (birth - 2 yrs) if it continues past 2 years, could be indication of CNS damage

Grasping Reflexes

object/hand placed in the palm of infant's hand/ or palm is stroked and finger close around object

Moro reflex

through 2 months, "startle" response, stimulated by sudden shift in infant's head position in response to loud noise/etc.; thought to "lessen fall" and allow infants to cling to parents

sucking reflex

pre- and postnatally, stim. by touching lips, reflex through 3-4 mths then becomes voluntary

rooting reflex

stim. by touching cheek or side/mouth, response by turning mouth towards stimulus (typically w/ mouth open)

Derotative righting

turn infant's legs/pelvis to one side, trunk/head follow rotation

Labyrinthine righting reflex

turn trunk sideways > head shifts upright orientation (corrects body orientation)

Tonic Labyrinthine Reflex

move head behind midline/arching of trunk -> extension of limbs; move head in front of midline -> hunching over trunk/limb flexion

pull-up reflex

(assisted) flex arms and tense head to remain upright

parachute reflex

tilt forward/side/backward -> arms extend OR lower infant toward ground rapidly -> legs extended

stepping reflex

crude form of walking, birth-5mths, stim. by placing sole of feet on flat surface, legs move up in walking pattern (alt. raising of legs)

swimming reflex

swimming like movement when held in horizontal position or place prone in water

crawling reflexes

place infant in prone, apply pressure to 1-2 feet -> crawling sort of pattern

spontaneous movements

movements not caused by known external stimuli

maturational perspective of spontaneous movement

extraneous and had no purpose/effect on later functioning

development of motor milestones are affected by:

underlying CNS functioning, cumulative (adding to previous milestones), or sequential (order consistent)

substantial delay of milestones indicate:

a problem, cascade (overall delay), or both

maturational viewpoint of reflexes disappearing

voluntary movement could not emerge until reflexes were inhibited by the CNS; "motor interference"

ecological viewpoint of reflexes disappearing

increase in weight of limbs and can't move the larger limb by a reflex response

Dynamical Systems Theory perspective of reflex walking

induced reduction of stepping reflex by affixing leg weights to infants who still demonstrated reflexive stepping

Dynamical Systems Theory Perspective of Spontaneous Movements

similar to some, later voluntary movements and may provide building blocks for later voluntary movements

rate limiters of locomotion

vestibular/proprioception (balance), muscular (strength), and nervous (coordination)

walking

first form of bipedal and upright locomotion; 50% phasing of legs w/ a period of double supposed followed by a period of single support

early walking

begin around 12 mths (9-18 mths); maximize stability and balance; arms in high guard and feet out-toed w/ a wide stance

proficient walking

trade stability for mobility; stride length increases, pelvis rotates, arms/legs swing in opposition, narrow base; double knee lock pattern (extension at heel-strike to push off)

later walking

maximize stability, wider base of support, feet out-toed, stride decreases, pelvic rotation decreases, and speed decreases

rate limiters of walking

muscle mass

running

occurs 6-7 mths after walking; 50% phasing of legs, flight phase followed by single support

early running

stability over mobility, arms in high guard, limited ROM, wide base of support, short stride, and very little pelvic rotation

proficient running

less stability, more mobility, increased stride, pelvic rotation, oppositional arm/leg movement, planar movement (max ant./post. movements)

later running

increase stability and balance, stride/ROM/strides/speed decrease

jumping

propel off ground w/ two feet and land on two feet

hopping

propel off ground with one foot and land on SAME foot

leaping

propel off ground with one foot and land on opposite foot

early jumping

vertical jump and horizontal jump; begin before age 2; little-no prep movements, inefficient arm movements, takeoff/land on one foot

proficient jumping

prep by crouching, swing arms, and feet takeoff and land at the same time

rate limiters of jumping

confidence, opportunities to jump, coordination

early hopping

support leg is lifted, swing leg is held rigid, and arms are either inactive or in high guard

proficient hopping

swing leg leads hip (full ROM), support leg extends fully at hip at takeoff and flexed on landing, oppositional arm movement to generate force

rate limiters of hopping

balance and strength

kick

a ballistic strike of an object from the foot

punt

type of kick where an object is dropped from the individual's hands before impact with the foot

throw

propelling something by force from the arms/hands

overarm & sidearm striking

hitting an object either with the active arm over, at, or below shoulder level

early overarm throwing

mostly arm action, elbow pointed up, throw executed by elbow extension alone, trunk flexion no rotation

proficient overarm throwing

preparatory windup, opp. leg/long step/differentiated trunk rotation, forearm lags behind upper arm, movements sequential

sociocultural effects on throwing

gender: slower progress for females

culture: some countries at product measure

throwing in adulthood

musculoskeletal constraints influence movement patterns, performance related to control rather than coordination

early kicking

no step is taken w/ non-kicking leg, kicking leg pushes forward

proficient kicking

preparatory windup used, trunk rotates forward, arms move in opposition to legs, movement is sequential

early punting

ball is tossed up rather than dropped, punter often contacts ball with toes rather than instep

proficient punting

arms extended then drop to side and move into opposition to legs, leap onto supporting legs and punting leg swings up vigorously, punting leg is kept straight and toes pointed

advanced punting

arms extended, punter leaps onto supporting leg/swings punting leg vigorously up to make contact, punting leg is kept straight/toes pointed, arms then drop to sides and move into opposition

early overarm striking

limited trunk rotation, swing w/ collapsed elbow, little-no lag w/ swing forward

proficient overarm striking

lower/upper trunk rotated, elbow is held at angle at start of forward movement, racket lags behind arm, movement is sequential

early sidearm striking

little leg/trunk movement, chopping motion (elbow extended)

proficient sidearm striking

sideways prep stance/long step, horizontal swing through large ROM, differentiated trunk rotation, sequential movements

older adult striking

skill dependent on activity, "use it or lose it", consistent history of activity leads to better outcomes

reaching

directing arm/hand to target

early reaching

(infant) inaccurate/visually directed, speed not suited to task/object, segmentation, whole body postural control, hand posture changes after contact w/ object

sweeping

method of reaching when hand and arm in a backhand manner toward the object

indirect/circuitous scooping

involving approaches from various angles, circular/indirect action

direct reach

direct hand from point A -> B, little variability

proficient reaching

accurate, easily transport/extend arm toward object spatially, reach/grasp in single skill, hand posture shapes to object during reach, occurs w/out visual information

grasping

acquiring an object through use of finger/palm/hands; different from grasping reflex

body scaling in grasping

grip depends on hand size and relative size to object; consistent for transitioning from one hand to using two hands to pick up object

early grasping

transition from "power"/"palmar" to "prehension" grasps; rely heavily on vision and open their hands rider

grasping by 9 months

infants shape hand to match object as they reach (4-8 mths scaled grip to object size but variable)

adult grasping

rarely rely on vision

expanding optical array

visual pattern that expands (towards) or constricts (away) from the retina

early catching

position arms/hands rigidly, sometimes trap ball against chest; turn head away/close eyes

proficient catching

absorption force (hands "give" to ball), catcher moves side-to-side/forward-back to intercept ball, fingers up for high ball and down for low ball

catching in older adults

improve w/ practice, influenced by factors affecting movement/speed/ability to reach, less accurate/more variable on coincidence-anticipation tasks

sensation

neural activity triggered by stimulus activating a sensory receptors, resulting in n. impulses traveling from sensory n. pathways to brain

perception

multistage process IN brain; selection, processing, organization, and integration of information received from senses

dynamic systems theory process

development of movement and perception go hand-in-hand

visual acuity

sharpness of sight or the amnt of detail that can be seen in an object

static visual acuity

target and performer are stationary (Snellen eye chart)

dynamic visual acuity

ability to see the detail in moving objects; CNS estimates object's direciton/velocity, oculo-motor system "to catch" and "to hold" object's image

visual and motor development

infants have functionally useful vision but unrefined vision level; first month have 5% acuity, by 6 mths vision is adequate for locomotion, by 10 vision is fully developed

binocular vision

coordinated eye movement, depth perception, cerebral function matured by age 6

convergence

ability to turn the 2 eyes inward toward each other to look at a close object

divergence

ability to turn the 2 eyes outwards to look at a distant object

how do perception of direction and velocity develop?

with age

early depth perception

by 6 mths they perceive depth, visual cliff (6-14 mths won't crawl over "cliff"

matured depth perception

refined to adult-like levels in adolescence, more older adults fail depth perception tests than young adults

visual perception

based on info abt boundaries help us extract/identify object from background; edges and objects in boundaries;

figure-and-ground perception

objects seen as distinct from background

whole-and-part perception

parts of pic/object discriminated from whole, yet being able to integrate the parts into the whole; parts and whole perceived simultaneously

shape cosntancy

perception of actual object shape despite its orientation to the viewer

spatial orientation

objects can have different orientations

size constancy

perception of actual size despite size of image on retina

visual change w/ age

decline implications for skill performance and everyday living tasks

Senile Miosis

restriction of light entering the eye, decrease in resting diameter of the pupil

Prebyopia

decreased ability to accommodate near objects w/ age; loss of elasticity in lens & decreased strength of ciliary muscles resulting in seeing trouble seeing nearby objects clearly

age-related eye diseases

cataracts, glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy

prenatal audition

fetuses respond to sound (maternal body sounds/her voice, general environmental sounds)

infant audition

absolute threshold is 60dB higher than adults, 3 mths they hear low frequency, at 6 mths hearing is similar to adults; newborns turn in direction of sound and discriminate basic speech sound which is then refined, temporal patterns are perceived and more complex patterns by age 1, distinguish sound from ambient noise