General Science - Physics, Chemistry, Light, Sound, and Electricity Reviewer

Vocabulary practice flashcards generated from the First Term General Science lecture reviewer covering core terms across physics, mechanics, fluids, electricity, light, sound, and chemistry.

Physics

The branch of science that studies matter, energy, motion, and forces, and explains how these interact to govern natural phenomena and technological systems.

Matter

Anything that has mass and occupies space.

Energy

The capacity to do work or cause change.

Kinetic Energy

The energy of motion.

Potential Energy

Stored energy.

Thermal Energy

Heat energy.

Electrical Energy

The energy of moving charges.

Chemical Energy

Energy stored in chemical bonds.

Law of Conservation of Energy

The principle stating that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.

Energy Conversion

The transformation of energy from one form to another.

Force (F)

A push or pull that can change the motion or shape of an object, calculated using the formula $F = m \times a$.

Motion

The change in position of an object over time.

Inertia

The tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion.

Work (W)

The transfer of energy that occurs when a force causes displacement in the direction of the force, calculated as $W = F \times d \times \cos(\theta)$.

Power (P)

The rate at which work is done or energy is transferred, calculated using the formula $P = W / t$.

Efficiency

The ability of a system to convert input energy into useful output, calculated as $\text{Efficiency} = (\text{Useful Output} / \text{Input}) \times 100\%$.

Friction

A force that opposes motion between surfaces in contact.

Gravity (g)

The force that attracts objects toward Earth, with a value of $g \approx 9.8\,m/s^2$.

Translational Motion

Motion in which all parts of an object move the same distance in the same direction over time.

Rotational Motion

Motion in which an object rotates around a fixed axis.

Displacement (d)

The change in position of an object in a given direction, calculated as $d = \text{final position} - \text{initial position}$.

Velocity (v)

The rate of change of displacement with respect to time, calculated using the formula $v = d / t$.

Acceleration (a)

The rate at which velocity changes over time, calculated using the formula $a = (v_f - v_i) / t$.

Angular Displacement

The angle through which an object rotates about an axis, measured in degrees or radians.

Angular Velocity

The rate of change of angular displacement, calculated as $\omega = \theta / t$.

Angular Acceleration

The rate of change of angular velocity, calculated using the formula $\alpha = (\omega_f - \omega_i) / t$.

Tangential Velocity

The linear speed of a point on a rotating object, calculated using $v = r \times \omega$.

Centripetal Acceleration

Acceleration directed toward the center of a circular path, calculated as $a_c = v^2 / r$.

Ergonomic Design

Designing tools and systems that match human motion to reduce strain and improve efficiency.

Machine

A device that makes work easier by changing the magnitude or direction of a force, or both.

Simple Machine

A basic mechanical device that alters force to perform work more efficiently.

Compound Machine

A system that combines two or more simple machines working together.

Mechanical Advantage (MA)

The ratio of output force to input force, calculated as $\text{MA} = \text{Output Force} / \text{Input Force}$.

Velocity Ratio (VR)

The ratio of distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the load, calculated as $\text{VR} = \text{Distance moved by effort} / \text{Distance moved by load}$.

Torque

The turning effect of a force applied at a distance from an axis, calculated using $\tau = r \times F \times \sin(\theta)$.

Lever

A rigid bar that rotates around a fixed point called the fulcrum.

Pulley

A wheel with a groove that changes the direction of force.

Inclined Plane

A slanted surface used to raise objects with less force.

Wheel and Axle

A large wheel attached to a smaller axle to amplify force.

Screw

An inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder.

Wedge

Two inclined planes joined together, designed to split objects apart.

Center of Mass

The point where the mass of an object is concentrated.

Fluid

A substance that can flow and take the shape of its container, encompassing both liquids and gases.

Density

The mass per unit volume of a substance, represented by the formula $\rho = m / V$.

Pressure (P)

The force exerted per unit area, calculated as $P = F / A$.

Fluid Pressure

Pressure exerted by a fluid at rest, calculated as $P = \rho g h$.

Pascal's Principle

The principle stating that pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally in all directions, expressed as $F_1 / A_1 = F_2 / A_2$.

Hydraulic System

A system that relies on fluid pressure to multiply force based on Pascal's Principle.

Archimedes' Principle

The principle stating that an object immersed in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced ($F_b = \rho \times g \times V$).

Buoyant Force

The upward force exerted by a fluid on an object.

Viscosity

The resistance of a fluid to flow.

Surface Tension

The cohesive force at the surface of a liquid that causes it to behave like a stretched membrane.

Electricity

The flow of electric charge that can be harnessed to perform work such as lighting, heating, and powering devices.

Electric Current (I)

The rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor, calculated as $I = Q / t$ and measured in Amperes ($A$).

Electric Current (I)

The rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor, calculated as $I = Q / t$ and measured in Amperes ($A$).

Voltage (V)

The potential difference that pushes electric charges through a circuit, measured in Volts ($V$).

Resistance (R)

The opposition to the flow of electric current, measured in Ohms ($\Omega$).

Ohm's Law

The formula describing the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in a circuit: $V = I \times R$.

Electric Power (P)

The rate at which electrical energy is used or converted, calculated as $P = V \times I$ and measured in Watts ($W$).

Electrical Energy (E)

The total energy consumed over time, calculated using $E = P \times t$.

Series Circuit

A circuit where components are connected in a single path, with total resistance calculated as $R_{\text{total}} = R_1 + R_2 + R_3$.

Parallel Circuit

A circuit where components are connected across the same voltage source, with total resistance calculated as $1 / R_{\text{total}} = 1 / R_1 + 1 / R_2 + 1 / R_3$.

Overloading

A hazard that occurs when too many devices draw current from one circuit, causing overheating.

Short Circuit

A low-resistance path that allows excessive current flow, leading to rapid overheating and circuit damage.

Energy Efficiency

Using less energy to perform the same task.

Energy Conservation

Reducing overall energy consumption by limiting unnecessary usage.

Light

A form of electromagnetic radiation that can travel through a vacuum and is responsible for vision.

Electromagnetic Wave

A wave consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that can propagate through space.

Speed of Light (c)

The constant speed at which light travels in a vacuum, equal to $c = 3.0 \times 10^8\,m/s$.

Reflection

The bouncing back of light when it strikes a surface, following the law that angle of incidence equals angle of reflection.

Refraction

The bending of light as it passes from one medium to another due to a change in speed.

Index of Refraction (n)

A measure of how much light slows down in a medium, given by $n = c / v$.

Dispersion

The separation of light into its component colors because different wavelengths bend at different angles.

Sound

A mechanical wave produced by vibrating objects and transmitted through a medium.

Mechanical Wave

A wave that requires a medium (solid, liquid, or gas) to travel.

Longitudinal Wave

A type of wave where particle motion is parallel to wave direction.

Frequency (f)

The number of vibrations or cycles per second, measured in Hertz ($Hz$).

Amplitude

The height of a wave from its rest position, which determines loudness in sound.

Pitch

The perceived highness or lowness of a sound, which depends on frequency.

Loudness

The intensity or volume of sound, which depends on amplitude.

Echo

The reflection of sound waves from surfaces.

Resonance

The amplification of sound when an object vibrates at its natural frequency.

LED (Light Emitting Diode)

A semiconductor device that emits light when current passes through it.

Laser

A device that produces a concentrated, coherent, monochromatic beam of light at high intensity.

Hologram

A three-dimensional image formed using light interference.

Chemistry

The branch of science that studies the composition, structure, properties, and changes of matter.

Chemist

A scientist who studies matter and its interactions to develop knowledge and useful applications.

Louis Pasteur

A scientist known as the 'Father of Microbiology' who combined chemistry and biology to develop the Germ Theory of Disease, pasteurization, and vaccination.

Germ Theory of Disease

The idea that microorganisms (germs) cause diseases.

Microorganisms

Tiny living organisms not visible to the naked eye, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi.

Pasteurization

The process of heating liquids to kill harmful microorganisms without destroying nutrients.

Fermentation

An anaerobic chemical process where microorganisms convert sugars into alcohol, acids, or gases.

Vaccination

Introducing weakened or inactive pathogens to stimulate an immune response and build immunity.

Antiseptics

Chemicals used on living tissues to kill or prevent the growth of microorganisms.

Sterilization

The complete elimination of all microorganisms from surfaces or equipment.

Chemical Substance

Matter with a definite composition and specific properties that determine how it behaves and interacts.

Active Ingredient

The component in a product responsible for its main intended effect.

Inactive Ingredient

Substances that support the active ingredient by improving stability, texture, fragrance, or color without producing the main effect.

Surfactant

A compound with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail that lowers surface tension, allowing water to spread and remove dirt.