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Encoding-Specificity Principle
Recall is better if the context during retrieval is similar to the context during encoding. Ex: same words or similar phrases
Implicit Memory
Memory revealed without conscious effort, like word completion tasks. A indirect measure of memory. Participants are shown material like words or pics and the cognitive task doesn’t ask about the recall or recognition of those images or phrases.
A situation where a variable affects one memory task but not another. Test A, but little or no effects on Test B; or, when a variable has one kind of effect if measured by Test A, and the opposite effect if measured by Test B.
Memory for events, issues and experiences related to oneself.
Mental frameworks of knowledge or expectations based on past experiences. Ex: Mnemonic
Working Memory
The brief, immediate memory for material we are currently processing
Long-term Memory
The high-capacity storage system that contains your memories for experiences and information that you have accumulated throughout your lifetime.
Episodic Memory
Your memories for events that happened to you personally; it allows you to travel backward in subjective time to reminisce about earlier episodes in your life
Semantic Memory
your organized knowledge about the world, including your knowledge about words and other factual information.
Procedural Memory
your knowledge about how to do something
Encoding
when you process information and represent it in your memory
Retrieval
Distinctiveness
stimulus that is different from previous memory traces
Elaboration
Deep processing that involves the connection of meaning and interrelated concepts
The Self-Reference Effect
You remember more information if you try and relate it to yourself
Hippocampus
a structure underneath the cortex that is important in many learning and memory tasks.
Emotion
a reaction to a specific stimulus
Mood
a more general, long-lasting experience
Consistency bias
tendency to exaggerate the consistency between our past feelings and beliefs and our current viewpoint
Monitoring
trying to identify whether an event really occurred or was imagined
Constructivist Approach
emphasizes that we construct knowledge by integrating new information with what we know
How Do Experts and Novices Differ
Experts are more knowledgeable, better organization of knowledge, and more experience using it.
Novices lack this comprehensive understanding and rely on basic rules or procedures to navigate tasks
Recovered Memory Perspective:
Memory for traumatic events (like child abuse) may be forgotten for many years and then come flooding back into consciousness.
False Memory Controversy
most recovered memories are actually incorrect, stories that never happened.
Memory is less perfect
Social pressure enhances the likelihood of memory errors
The accuracy of childhood memories is not easy to determine.
The Recovered Memory/False Memory Controversy
Roediger and McDermott (1995) listed associated words with the false recall. 55% intrusion errors were found. Research shows that people can create false memories. Some people who have medical documents of sexual abuse as a child don’t remember the situation at all.
Effects of Emotion on Memory
Emotions can enhance memory for details, but can also impair memory for other details.
Anxiety Disorders effects on Memory Tasks
With recognition tests, anxious and low-anxious people performed similarly. High anxious participants were MORE likely than low anxious people to recall negative, anxiety arousing words, but LESS likely to recall neutral and pleasant words
The Post-Event Misinformation Effect
Someone views an event
Then they’re given misleading info about what happened
Later on, they mistakenly recall the misleading info rather than the event they actually saw
Ex: Eyewitness Testimony
The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy
Participants are confident about their misinformation based memories as they are about their genuinely correct memories.
Majority of the law enforcement officers and jurors are not aware that a confident eyewitness is not necessarily an accurate one.
Often Police techniques can encourage these kinds of errors.
Distal Stimulus
he actual object that is “out there” in the environment
Iconic/Visual-Sensory Memory
preserves an image of a visual stimulus for a brief period after the stimulus has disappeared
Retina
covers the inside back portion of your eye; it contains millions of neurons that register and transmit visual information from the outside world
Primary Visual Cortex
located in the occipital lobe of the brain; it is the portion of your cerebral cortex that is concerned with basic processing of visual stimuli.
Perception
uses previous knowledge to gather and interpret the stimuli registered by the senses
Gestalt Psychology
that humans have basic tendencies to organize what they see; without any effort, we see patterns rather than random arrangements
