Integ Seminar Prelims

Human development

shaped by the continuous interaction of biological inheritance and environmental experience.

Heredity

refers to biological characteristics transmitted through genetic inheritance — including physical traits, biological sex, temperamental tendencies, and predispositions toward particular health or psychological conditions. It represents the biological blueprint a person receives from their parents.

Environment

refers to the experiences, conditions, and influences that shape development from the outside — including parenting, nutrition, education, peer relationships, socioeconomic status, and cultural expectations.

cross-sectional design

compares individuals from different age groups at a single point in time. It is efficient and time-saving, but its key limitation is the risk of cohort effects — differences between groups may reflect generational experiences rather than true developmental change.

longitudinal design

follows the same individuals over an extended period of time, allowing observation of actual developmental change within persons. Its key limitations include participant attrition (dropout over time), time and cost, and repeated-testing effects that may inflate later performance.

Sequential Design

Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches to address some of the limitations of each. Multiple cohorts are followed over time, allowing comparison of both age differences and developmental change.

Strengths	Controls for cohort effects while tracking developmental change; more efficient than purely longitudinal approaches.
Limitations	More complex to design and execute than either cross-sectional or longitudinal approaches alone; still subject to attrition

Gene-environment interaction

refers to the phenomenon in which the same genetic predisposition produces different outcomes depending on the environmental conditions in which it is expressed. Genes are not deterministic — their effects depend on the environment.

interaction

Development is not adequately explained by choosing either heredity or environment. Most characteristics emerge through _____

Passive

Parents provide both genes and environments that are correlated — e.g. musically gifted parents who create a music-rich home.

Evocative

A child's inherited traits elicit particular responses from others — e.g. a sociable child receives more social engagement from peers and teachers.

Active

Individuals actively seek environments that match their inherited tendencies — e.g. a musically inclined child who seeks out musical activities and opportunities.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in natural, real-world settings without manipulation. High ecological validity; limited experimental control.

Structured observation

Observing behavior in a controlled setting where specific conditions or stimuli are presented. Greater consistency across participants; may lack naturalness.

Interviews

Gathering self-reported information through structured or open-ended questions. Flexible and informative; subject to response bias and social desirability effects.

Case studies

In-depth examination of an individual or small group. Rich and detailed; limited generalizability.

Correlational designs

	Examining the relationship between two or more variables without manipulation. Identifies associations but cannot establish causation.

Experiments

Manipulating an independent variable to determine its effect on a dependent variable. The only method that can establish cause-and-effect relationships; ethical constraints limit use with children and vulnerable populations.

assent

Because children cannot legally provide informed consent, researchers must obtain consent from parents or legal guardians. The child's ____ must also be sought using language appropriate to the child's developmental level.

The child's own agreement to participate, expressed in developmentally appropriate terms — even when parental consent has already been obtained

informed consent

Given by a parent or guardian on behalf of a minor — or by an adult participant with full cognitive capacity

Unnecessary discomfort

Physical or emotional harm beyond what is minimal and justified by the research benefit.

Coercion

Pressure — direct or indirect — that compromises a participant's voluntary decision to participate or withdraw

Deception

Providing false or misleading information — permitted only when scientifically necessary and followed by full debriefing.

Privacy violations

Unauthorized disclosure of identifying or sensitive information about participants.

lifelong (principle of lifespan development)

Development occurs from conception to death. No single period — childhood, adolescence, or adulthood — is more critical than all others. Change and growth continue throughout the entire lifespan.

Multidimensional (principle of lifespan development)

Development involves multiple domains — physical, cognitive, emotional, and social — all of which interact and influence each other. No single dimension captures the full picture of development

Multidirectional (principle of lifespan development)

Growth in one area may occur alongside decline or stability in another. Development is not a simple linear progression upward — gains and losses occur simultaneously across domains and stages

Contextual (principle of lifespan development)

Individuals are shaped by historical period, culture, family circumstances, and social institutions. Development cannot be understood apart from the contexts in which it occurs.

Continuity and Change

(principle of lifespan development)

Some characteristics remain relatively stable across time, while others shift in response to maturation, learning, relationships, transitions, and life events. Development involves both threads of consistency and moments of transformation.

Freud's Psychosexual Theory

proposed that personality develops through a sequence of stages associated with bodily sources of pleasure. Conflict or excessive gratification at a particular stage may result in fixation — a preoccupation with the concerns of that stage that persists into adulthood.

unconscious processes and early childhood experiences may have long-term effects on personality. Although many aspects of the theory are difficult to test empirically, it introduced the clinical importance of early relationships and emotional conflict.

Oral (birth - 1)

Feeding and oral stimulation; fixation may lead to dependency or aggression in adulthood.

Anal (1-3)

Control and retention; conflict around toilet training may result in orderliness or defiance

Phallic (3-6)

Genitals; Oedipus and Electra complexes; identification with the same-sex parent; development of the superego.

Latency (6-12)

Sexual impulses are dormant; energy redirected toward social and intellectual skills.

Genital (puberty onward)

Mature sexual relationships; capacity for adult love and work if earlier conflicts were resolved.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

proposed eight psychosocial stages across the lifespan. Each stage presents a central developmental conflict — a psychosocial crisis — that must be navigated. Successful resolution strengthens the individual; unresolved conflict may impair later development.

extends across the entire lifespan and places emphasis on social relationships, culture, and life transitions rather than instinctual drives and childhood sexuality.

Trust vs. Mistrust (birth -1)

core virtue: hope

autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3)

will

initiative vs. guilt (3-6)

purpose

industry vs inferiority (6-12)

competence

identity vs role confusion (Adolescence)

fidelity

intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood)

love

generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)

care

integrity vs despair (late adulthood)

wisdom

Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

children actively construct knowledge through interaction with the environment. Development proceeds through qualitatively distinct stages, driven by two complementary processes: assimilation and accomodation

the child is an active constructor of knowledge — not a passive recipient. Cognitive change is driven by equilibration: the ongoing process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to achieve a stable understanding of the world.

Assimilation

New experiences are interpreted using existing schemas. The person fits new information into what they already know.

Accommodation

Existing schemas are modified to account for new information that does not fit existing understanding.

Sensorimotor (birth - 2 yrs)

Learning through senses and motor actions; development of object permanence.

preoperational 2-7

Language and symbolic thought; egocentrism; inability to conserve.

concrete operational (7-12)

Logical thinking about concrete objects; conservation; classification and seriation.

Formal operational (12 yrs onward)

Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking, and systematic problem solving.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

examined how individuals develop moral reasoning — the ability to justify ethical decisions. His framework progresses through three levels, each containing two stages.

Moral reasoning does not automatically guarantee moral behavior. ____'s framework describes how individuals justify decisions — not what they actually do. Critics also note that the model may not adequately account for cultural variation and relational dimensions of moral judgment.

Preconventional (early childhood)

Consequences — punishment avoidance and reward seeking. Rules are external constraints.

Conventional (Adolescence and most adults)

Social approval and adherence to rules and laws. Maintaining social order is primary.

Postconventional (Some adults)

Abstract ethical principles — justice, human rights, and universal values that may override specific rules

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Model

placed development within interacting environmental systems that surround the individual — from immediate relationships to broad cultural forces and historical change.

Microsystem

Immediate settings and relationships — family, school, peer group, neighborhood. Direct, face-to-face interaction.

Mesosystem

Connections and interactions among microsystems — e.g. the relationship between a child's school and family.

Exosystem

Settings that affect the person indirectly — e.g. a parent's workplace policies that influence family stress levels.

Macrosystem

Cultural beliefs, values, laws, and social structures that shape the context of development — e.g. educational policies, gender norms

Chronosystem

The dimension of time — including historical changes and life transitions that alter the context of development over the course of a person's life

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

emphasized that cognitive development is fundamentally social and cultural. Learning occurs through interaction with more knowledgeable others, and language is the primary tool through which thought is shaped.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with assistance. Learning is most effective when it targets this zone.

Scaffolding

Temporary support provided by a more capable person that is gradually withdrawn as the learner's competence increases. The goal is independent mastery.

Piaget vs. Vygotsky — Key Distinction

Both theorists view children as active learners, but they differ on the source of cognitive development. For Piaget, development arises primarily from the child's independent interaction with the physical world. For Vygotsky, it arises from social interaction and cultural transmission — learning precedes and drives development.

Attachment Theory

emphasizes the emotional bond between a child and caregiver. Ainsworth's research identified patterns of attachment based on how children respond to caregiver availability and responsiveness — particularly under stress.

Secure

Child uses caregiver as a safe base; explores freely and seeks comfort when distressed. Associated with consistent, responsive, and emotionally available caregiving

Avoidant

child appears indifferent to the caregiver and minimizes distress upon separation. Associated with caregivers who are consistently dismissive or emotionally unavailable.

Resistant / Ambivalent

Child is preoccupied with the caregiver, shows distress upon separation, and is difficult to comfort on reunion. Associated with inconsistent caregiving.

Disorganized

Child displays contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior toward the caregiver. Associated with frightening, abusive, or highly unpredictable caregiving.

not fixed labels

attachment patterns are ____. Later relationships, changes in caregiving, therapeutic experiences, and significant life events can all influence relational development. These categories describe tendencies, not permanent traits.

Mahler's Separation-Individuation

described how infants and young children gradually develop a sense of self as distinct from the caregiver. The process of separation-individuation involves the child establishing autonomy while maintaining emotional connection — moving from a state of psychological merger with the caregiver toward a stable sense of individual identity.

Marcia's Identity Statuses

identified four identity statuses during adolescence and emerging adulthood. Each status is defined by the presence or absence of exploration and commitment.

Diffusion

No exploration or commitment; individual appears unconcerned about identity questions.

Foreclosure

Commitment made without exploration — often adopting parents' or authority figures' values without questioning

Moratorium

Actively exploring identity options but not yet committed; a period of searching and questioning.

Achievement

Exploration has occurred and a stable commitment has been made; individual has a secure sense of identity.

Behaviorism

Explains development through conditioning and reinforcement. Behavior is shaped by its environmental consequences — reinforced behaviors increase in frequency; punished or unreinforced behaviors decrease.

Classical conditioning

Association of a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally produces a response (Pavlov; Watson).

Operant conditioning

Behavior is shaped by reinforcement (increases behavior) and punishment (decreases behavior) (Skinner).

Social-Learning Theory

Bandura extended behaviorism by emphasizing that learning also occurs through observational learning and imitation — without direct reinforcement.

Observational learning

Learning by watching the behavior and consequences of others (models).

Imitation

Reproducing behavior observed in a model; more likely when the model is seen as similar, competent, or rewarded.

Self-efficacy

The individual's belief in their own ability to perform specific behaviors — a key determinant of whether learned behaviors are actually performed.

Evolutionary Perspective

Examines behaviors and developmental patterns that may have supported adaptation and survival across generations. Attachment, for example, may be understood as an evolved mechanism that keeps vulnerable infants close to protective caregivers. This perspective provides a distal explanation — not a sufficient account of individual development — and must be combined with other frameworks.