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Psychodynamic
An approach to psychology that emphasizes unconscious processes and childhood experiences.
Cognitive
An approach that focuses on mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.
Evolutionary
An approach that examines psychological traits as adaptations for survival and reproduction.
Sociocultural
An approach that considers the impact of social and cultural factors on behavior and mental processes.
Random Assignment
A technique used in experiments where participants are assigned to different groups randomly to eliminate bias.
Random Sample
A method of selecting a subgroup from a larger population, where each member has an equal chance of being included.
Standard Deviation
A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.
Ethical Guidelines
Rules that help researchers conduct studies in a morally acceptable manner.
Correlation Coefficient
A numerical measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Part of the autonomic nervous system that conserves energy and restores the body to a calm state.
Sympathetic Nervous System
Part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for fight-or-flight responses.
Autonomic Nervous System
The system that controls involuntary bodily functions such as heartbeat, digestion, and respiration.
Somatic Nervous System
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary muscle movements.
Agonist
A substance that enhances or mimics the effects of neurotransmitters.
Antagonist
A substance that inhibits or blocks the effects of neurotransmitters.
Action Potential of a Neuron
A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon when a neuron is activated.
Placebo Effect
The phenomenon in which a patient experiences a perceived improvement in condition due to believing they received treatment.
Brain Plasticity
The ability of the brain to change and adapt as a result of experience.
Broca's Area
A region of the frontal lobe associated with the production of speech.
Wernicke's Area
A region of the temporal lobe associated with the comprehension of language.
Cerebellum
A brain part important for coordination and balance.
Medulla
A brain part that controls vital life functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Hippocampus
A brain part involved in the formation of memories.
Amygdala
A brain part that plays a role in processing emotions.
Hypothalamus
A brain part that regulates body temperature, hunger, and circadian rhythms.
Circadian Rhythm
The body's internal clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle.
Sleep Deprivation
A condition resulting from not getting adequate sleep.
REM Sleep
A sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movement and increased brain activity.
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness.
Insomnia
A sleep disorder marked by difficulty in falling or staying asleep.
Sleep Apnea
A sleep disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops and starts.
Opponent Process Theory
A theory of color vision that suggests colors are perceived in opposing pairs.
Trichromatic Theory
A theory that suggests color perception is based on the activation of three types of cones in the retina.
Difference Threshold
The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected.
Just-Noticeable Difference (JND)
The minimum amount of change in a stimulus that can be noticed.
Signal-Detection Theory
A theory that explains how we detect faint stimuli amidst background noise.
Cones
Photoreceptor cells in the retina that function in daylight and are responsible for color vision.
Rods
Photoreceptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to low light levels and are responsible for night vision.
Transduction
The process of converting physical stimuli into neural signals.
Constancy
The perception of objects as unchanging despite changes in sensory input.
Gestalt Principles
Rules that describe how we organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes.
Inattentional Blindness
A psychological phenomenon where an individual fails to perceive an unexpected stimulus in plain sight.
Framing
The way information is presented that can influence decision-making and judgment.
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have foreseen or predicted the outcome.
Algorithm
A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem.
Representative Heuristic
A cognitive bias where individuals categorize objects or people based on how similar they are to a specific prototype.
Availability Heuristic
A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind.
Effortful Processing
The encoding of information that requires attention and effort.
Automatic Processing
The unconscious encoding of incidental information.
Semantic Encoding
The process of remembering the meaning of information rather than the sound or appearance.
Serial Position Effect
The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.
Primacy Effect
The tendency to remember the first items in a sequence.
Recency Effect
The tendency to remember the most recent items in a sequence.
Amnesia
A condition involving the loss of memory.
Anterograde Amnesia
The inability to form new memories after a specific event.
Retrograde Amnesia
The inability to recall memories formed before a specific event.
Memory Consolidation
The process by which temporary memories are transformed into lasting ones.
Short Term Memory
A limited capacity memory system that holds information briefly.
Long Term Memory
A system for permanently storing, managing, and retrieving information.
Proactive Interference
When old memories interfere with the retrieval of newer ones.
Retroactive Interference
When new memories interfere with the retrieval of older ones.
Encoding Failure
The inability to store information in memory.
Retrieval Failure
The inability to access stored information when needed.
Forgetting Curve
A graphical representation of how information is lost over time when there is no attempt to retain it.
Misinformation Effect
When a person's recollection of an event is altered by misleading information.
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
The sensation of knowing that a particular word is being sought but being unable to retrieve it.
Intelligence - g
General intelligence factor that represents cognitive abilities.
The Flynn Effect
The observed rise in IQ scores over time in many parts of the world.
Validity
The degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
Reliability
The consistency of a test's results over time.
Standardized
Tests that are administered and scored in a consistent manner.
Maturation
The process of development that occurs in a fixed sequence regardless of the environment.
Sensitive Period
A time during development when a person is especially open to certain types of learning.
Primary Sex Characteristics
Body structures directly involved in reproduction.
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Non-reproductive sexual traits, such as breast development and facial hair.
Teratogens
Substances that can cause malformations or birth defects during prenatal development.
Sex Chromosomes
Chromosomes that determine an individual's sex (X and Y).
Gender Stereotypes
Rigidly held beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors of men and women.
Gender Roles
Socially constructed roles and behaviors typically expected of men and women.
Object Permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.
Conservation
The understanding that certain properties of objects remain the same despite changes in form or appearance.
Theory of Mind
The ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and desires different from one's own.
Egocentrism
The inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's perspective.
Assimilation
The process of incorporating new information into existing cognitive schemas.
Accommodation
The process of altering one's existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information.
Piaget's Levels of Cognitive Development
A theory that identifies four stages of cognitive development in children.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with guidance from a teacher.
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