Aquatic biomes

The gulf stream

brings warm water from caribbean & USA to europe

allows temp regulation

Coastal upwelling

Surface currents move away from the coast, it is replaced by water from greater depths

Deep water is rich in nutrients, so these upwelling areas are highly productive

costal areas bc shallow waters allow turbulance and seasonal turnover and also costal runoff(nutrients) are the highest productivity

Tides

Result from the gravitational pulls of the Sun and the Moon.

• The tidal force of the moon is 2.2x the force of the sun.

Everyday Earth pass through two of the lunar tides (high tides) and two low tides at right angles to the high tides

Spring tides

higher than normal

occur when the sun and moon line-up twice a month (new moon and full

moon)

Neap tides

lower than normal

occur during the quarter phases when the gravitational forces of the sun partially cancel out those of the moon

Marine Biomes

~70% of ELS(ecological land services)

based on chemical and physical abiotic factors(depth, temperature, wave action, oxygen content and substrate)

Open Ocean

including hydrothermal vents(rich in hydrogen sulfite)

Hydrothermal vents

Rich in Hydrogen sulfite

• expel hot water up to 400º C → Cold seawater enters these cracks moving towards magma

• seawater stripped of oxygen, sulfate, and magnesium

• from the earth’s curst it gains copper, iron, zinc, and sulfur

• when water returns to ocean it is heated but it doesn’t boil due to pressure

Hydrothermal vents are located worldwide on mid oceanic ridges → support chemoautrophic bacteria which convert sulfite into sulfate

Shallow water biomes

Coral reefs, kelp forests, sea grasses

The intertidal biomes

Rocky shores, sandy beaches, mangrove forests, and salt marshes

The Open ocean

divided into different zones according to proximity to shore, depth, and ligth availability

Neritic zone

extends from intertidal zone/littoral zone to continental shelf

Pelagic zone

open ocean

from continental zone onwards

reaches depths of around 4000 m

nutrient concentrations are typically low but can increase due to upwelling

cold only warm in photic zone

photic zone

area where sunlight reaches

aphotic zone

area where no light reaches - cold

most food from dead organisms that sink down

depths where less than 1% of sunlight reaches

epipelagic zone

surface waters, 0.2 km, only in photic zone

photosynthetic phytoplankton - nearly ½ of earth’s photosynthesis

mesopelagic zone

below epipelagic zone, 0.2-1km

Bathypelagic zone

below mesopelagic zone 1-4 km

abyssal zone

4-6 km

Hadal zone

6+ km

Bioluminescence

A chemical reaction that produces light

Bioluminescence examples

Headlights, lures to attract prey, counter-illumination to hide from predators, confusing predators or prey, social signals for mates, setting off burglar alarms to attract predators of predators!

Primary Producers in the open ocean

Energy obtained from photosynthesis or chemosynthesis

Phytoplankton, Algae

Consumers in the open ocean

Herbivores (zooplankton, suspension feeders, foragers)

Predators

Detritivores/Scavengers

Thermocline

Zone where temperature decreases rapidly with depth

Zonation by temperature

Thermal profiles within open water: Polar regions

NO THERMOCLINE

Water is cold in all seasons.

Water is well-mixed and nutrients are generally abundant.

Phytoplankton grow rapidly during short period of light and warmer temperature

Thermal profiles within open water: Tropical regions

PERMANENT THERMOCLINE

Sharp division between warm upper layer and cold depth

Low nutrients limit phytoplankton productivity

Thermal profiles within open water: Temperate regions

SEASONAL THERMOCLINE

Summer:

• Strong stratification, no mixing

Spring/Fall:

• Decreased stratification allows for nutrients to come to the surface

Winter:

• No stratification (cold throughout), well mixed

Coral reefs

clear, warm tropical waters with hard substrates

0.1% of ocean

25% of marine species

low nutrient tropics in the photic zone

• bc of relationship w/ mutualistic photosynthetic flagellytes

Threatened by: acidification, climate change, harvesting

Kelp forests

clear, cool temperate waters with hard substrates

50 cm per day growth rate can reach 5 m

invertebrates, fish, birds, mammals

Threatened by: harvesting, hunting, runoff, overharvesting of kelp(for algen water sucker uper)

Sea grasses

clear water with sandy substrate in both cool and warm water

bottom of protected waves and other shallow costal waters

seagrasses have strong roots to withstand wave action and large and small herbivores

spawn sites for lots of fish

erosion control

Threatened by: boating action, pollution, runoff

Rocky Intertidal Zones

where land meets sea

• sea brings nutrients carry away organic material

low competition due to waves, open space for colonization

Threatened by: harvesting of shells and animals, oil spills

Infralittorial zone

exposed only during lowest tides

seaweed, mollusks, sea anenomes, etc.

Littoral zone

submerged during highest regular tide and exposed during lowest regular tide

seaweeds, and mollusks

Supralittoral fringe

covered only during highest tides

Supralittoral(spray) zone

Never covered

receives splashes or spray

Sandy Shores

produced by waves that wear down costal cliffs or coral reefs, or by grinding down shells → ground down to shingle and sand

sand can be deep and wave action extensive → harsh environment

• deeper sand = less oxygen

Beach drains and drys out quickly

Gradient of oxygen availability → decrease w/ depth

Temperature changes quickly

lots of invertebrates live in between sand grains

tube worms, Polychaete worms, clams, bivalves, mole crabs

Threatened by: human development, general human disruption

Mangroves

Along worlds tropical coastline(25º N/S)

Develop where no wave action, sediments accumulate, mud is anoxic

• mangrove roots are for oxygen exchange(aerial roots) and support them in muddy sediment

Dominant plants are mangroves and other salt-tolerant plants

Support rich fauna (both terrestrial and aquatic)

Threatened by: human development, boat action, oil spills, use of wood, pollution, susceptible to freezing

Salt Marshes

Temperate latitudes where coastlines are protected from the action of waves within estuaries, deltas, by barrier islands and dunes

Distinct zonation

Structure determined by tides and salinity

more salt tolerant are in low marsh(closer to shore)

Meandering creeks

• drainage system → cary tides back

Variety of herbivores but they tend to be small

• fiddler crabs, periwinkle, plant hopper

spartina, salt marsh grass → experience salt daily

Threatened by: pollution, urban development

Freshwater habitats

governed by the unique properties of water

Lentic and Lotic

water is most dense at 4º C at 0º it is least dense(frozen)

water becomes more dense w/ increasing salinity

Zonation of aquatic environments

based on distance from shore and light penetration, and distance from shore

Lentic

nonflowing (ponds, lakes)

Zonation in lakes

Zonation is by light and temperature in lakes

Layers occur during the summer:

Epilimnion - area warmed by the sun → warm, low density, low nutrient waters

• photosynthetic plankton

Metalimnion - thermocline

Hypolimnion - not warmed by the sun → cold, high density, high-nutrient waters

Annual Cycle of a Temperate Lake(DRAW IT)

lakes have to be deep enough for this to happen

Tropical lakes are usually isothermal

Mixing influences nutrient availability

During spring and fall turnovers, plankton are carried downward, nutrients from decomposition are carried upward

In spring, phytoplankton have access to both nutrients and light! → spring bloom

Lakes reflect the surrounding land

Water moves through soil and enters waterways, transporting silt and nutrients

Human activities influence flow as well as the movement of materials → eutrophication

Eutrophication

nutrient enrichment(chemically)

• can be natural

Oligotrophic

least productive lakes

low nutrient levels

good light penetration

high dissolved oxygen → low decomposers

deep waters

low algal growth

small mouth bass, lake trout, pike, sturgeon, whitefish

young

Oligotrophic naturally becomes eutropic over time but can be influenced by humans

Eutrophic

High nutrient

poor light penetration

low dissolved oxygen

shallow waters

high algal growth

carp, bullhead, catfish

encouraged by nutrient rich deciduous forests or farmland

Dissolved Oxygen

Enters into water via

1. diffusion from atmosphere

2. from plants and algae that are photosynthesizing

3. in moving water that traps air(moving over rocks etc)

Cold water can hold more DO

Decomposers take up DO → lots of decomposing material = low DO

Lotic

flowing (rivers and streams)

Definition: Flowing, linear bodies of water that traverse some distance

Velocity of current molds stream character and structure

Order of streams

First order → Where snow melt starts(head waters)

second order → 2 or first order streams merge

so on

major rivers are usually fourth order

Stream movement

pathway widens as it goes downstream

water slows as it goes downstream

temperature gets warmer as it goes downstream (less canopy over water)

greater input of solar energy as it goes downstream

less decaying matter as it goes downstream

more light & phytoplankton as it goes downstream

CPOM

course particulate organic matter

more upstream

FPOM

fine particulate organic matter

more downstream

Shredders

feed on fungi & bacteria found on CPOM

Caddisflies, stoneflies

More upstream

Grazers

feed on algal coating of stones and rubble

water penny

midstream - down stream

Collectors

feed on the bacteria on FPOM → filtering: black flies

or stream- bottom sediments → gatherers: midge larva

More downstream

Flowing water alternates between two different habitats

Riffles

Pools

exist in same river

Riffles

Turbulent

Sites of primary production

Organisms attach to rocks, etc

shells of rocks or pebbles

Pools

Less turbulent

Sites of decomposition

Velocity slows, organic material settles

Major sites of CO2 production

Estuaries

Where the river meets the ocean

Saltiness ranges from <1% to 3% → amount depends on freshwater and saltwater flow rate

Organisms mainly stationary(sessile)

Highly productive

• Mixing temperatures and salinities creates a counterflow that traps nutrients

• nutrients and oxygen are carried in by the tides

• Provide nursery areas for oysters, crabs, and many fish

• Oysters lie at right angles to tidal currents, which bring in food and carry waste away

Brackish - freshwater and saltwater

Wetlands

Range from permanently flooded to occasionally saturated

flooded anaerobic soils

Distinctive plant(intolerant of drought) and bird species

One of the most productive and species rich biomes

help w/ flood control, water filitration

Threatened by: pollution, drainage & land conversion

Inland wetlands

freshwater swamps and marshes, fens, bogs…

Costal wetlands

mangrove swamps, salt marshes (temperate)

Bogs

Very sensitive habitats, very specialized habitat

Water at the ground surface very acidic → from acidic groundwater, or precipitation, Spagium mosses(dominant species) release H

Nutrient poor

Organic materials are very well preserved

Lots of carnivorous plants(supplementing their diet)

peet - produce organic acid

Tollund Man - Denmark 400 BC

Anaerobic environment(like bogs) can result in remarkable preservation of organic material!

Mummified corpse from Denmark, found in 1950, lived in the 4th century.

New York City’s Drinking Water

Every day more than 1 billion gallons of water are brought in from upstate reservoirs

DEP performs 900 tests daily!

Mesopotamian marshes in Iraq

at end of Euphrates and Tigris(+2 more) rivers

reliant on flooding

home to the marsh arabs

No sewage treatment lead to contaminated marshes

“kidney” of the natural world

Drained by Saddam Hussein

• Extensive diversion structures built by Army destroyed 90% of marshland

“Brutal Ecocide”

Lawler 2005

Extinction of an otter, bandicot rat, long-fingered bat

66 species of water birds at risk

Devastating consequences for fisheries (shrimp, fish, etc)

• In the 1990’s, fisheries in Gulf reduced by 50%

Water quality: (the wetlands) “were the kidneys”

Livelihood of Marsh Arabs

Local residents breach the dikes

2003: people of marshland reflood half of the marshes

• By 2005, the vegetation was expanding, but high habitat fragmentation

Species returning, but low numbers

Almost half the original area reflooded, but:

• Dams, drought, increasing salt, climate change and irrigation upstream

• However rhizomes stay viable for a long time

Ongoing questions in 2006

What are the problems that could result from uncontrolled reflooding?

How serious are the problems of water quality and soil toxicity?

Can native fauna and flora reestablish?

Will there be enough water for restoration?

Ongoing Issues for the marsh

Wetland habitat fragmentation (disconnected patches)

Difficulties in collecting data (remote, dangerous)

Release of toxins, salts from reflooded soils

Flooding of newly developed villages

False sense of water availability

Reflooding does not equal restoration

Shifting way of life – from marshlands to sheep, wheat and cattle?

UN FAO

Goal: to reverse land degradation in the marshland areas of southern Iraq and promote sustainable land use through application of agroecology and conservation agriculture practices

• more women inclusion

Eden in Iraq Wastewater Project

Dr. Jassim al-Asad, Nature Iraq

restoring marsh areas

UNDP, Ministry of Water Resources of Iraq, and the Government of Canada goals

2023 – 2026: improving regulations on sustainable hunting and fishing and equipping environmental police and increasing the capacity of police, women groups, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to enforce these laws.

Enhancing the traditional knowledge of Marsh Arab women through capacity-building trainings to increase their economic opportunities, whilst improving climate change adaptation of the Marshlands