Intro To Psych: Exam 3
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Definition of thinking
Mental manipulation of representations of information in our environment
Types of Mental Representations: Anglogic
Think of the physical object (Ex: When you think of a Violin, think of the object itself)
Types of Mental Representations: Symbolic
Arbitrary way to think of the object. Abstract in nature (Ex: The word “Violin” to refer to a violin)
What are Schemas?
Mental structures that guide thoughts and behavior
Efficient thinking: Concepts
The specifics of an object or event
Efficient Thinking: Category
Groups based on shared properties
Models of Categorization: Prototype Model
Think of the “best example” for a category.
Ex: When I say “fruit”, think of the best example of a “fruit”
Models of Categorization: Drawback of a prototype model?
The “best example” may vary by things like culture or personal beliefs
Models of Categorization: Exemplar model
All concepts together form the category. Some are just Prototypical.
What are the twos ways to use Schemas?
How to behave in a context: The “Rules”
What we do in a situation: Our “Roles”
What are stereotypes?
Schemas that allow easy, fast processing of information about people, events, or groups based on categorization
Negative Stereotypes
Reinforce negative beliefs about a specific group
Ex: Canadians like to drink
Positive Stereotypes
Reduce a person to their group membership, and creates high expectations
ex: All Asians are good at math
What is a Heuristic?
A mental shortcut to reduce the amount of thinking to make a decision.
Availability Heuristic
Decision based on info that easily comes to mind
Affective Heuristic
Considers how you feel or will feel about a decision or event (Overestimate or underestimate the impact of something).
Representativeness Heuristic
Categorizes based on a similarity to a prototype or stereotype
How do you avoid bad heuristics?
Slow down, and think critically
Consider you might be wrong
Rely on data and focus
Social Cognitive Biases: Confirmation Bias
Underlying Tendency to notice, focus on, and give greater credence to evidence that fits withing our existing beliefs
Social Cognitive Biases: Fundamental Attribution Error
Tendency to explain someone else’s behaviors based on internal factors rather than external factors
Ex: “He cut me off because he’s a dick, not because he is late to work”
Social Cognitive Biases: Actor/Observer Bias
Tendency to attribute ones owns own actions to external factors, while attributing other people’s behaviors to internal factory
Ex: “I cut this person off because I’m late to work. But if someone did it to me, they’re a dick head”
Social Cognitive Biases: Self Serving Biases
Tendency to attribute our success to internal, personal factors, and our failures to external factors.
Ex: I passed the exam because I’m smart, but I failed this other exam because it was too hard
(People with depression tend to do the opposite)
Social Cognitive Biases: Just World Hypothesis
The tendency to believe that the world is fair, and people get what they deserve
Ex: They’re a jerk, so they deserve whatever happens to them
Social Cognitive Biases: Hindsight Bias
The tendency of upon learning the outcome of an event, to overestimate one’s ability to have seen it coming
Ed: I knew that boat was going to crash
Social Cognitive Biases: Anchoring Bias
Relying too much on the first information (Or reference point) when making a decision.
Ex: Saying a 30,000 dollar car is “too expensive”, but a 60,000 dollar car on sale for 30,000 is “a great deal”
Social Cognitive Biases: Dunning Kruger Effect
Tendency for people with limited knowledge or skills in a certain area to overestimate their abilities
Ex: I’ve never driven before, but I’m sure I’ll be great at it
Framing
How information is presented will effect a persons decisions
The Paradox of Choice
Giving someone too many can lead to indicision
Making a choice: Maximizers
Try to focus on the “best decision”, with the most upsides.
Making a choice: Satisfiers
Weill choose the option that satisfies the basic needs. Just “good enough”
Binet - Simon Intelligence Scale
A test to measure someone’s Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Tests Math, Language, Vocabulary, and Memory.
Charles Spearman: General Intelligence
Claims that intelligence comes from a single common factor that contributes to performance on any form of an intellectual task.
Raymond Cattell: Fluid Intelligence
Quick and Adaptable, allowing for abstract thinking.
Raymond Cattell: Crystalized Intelligence
More concrete, long term memory
Howard Gardner: Multiple Intelligence
Claims that we have multiple forms of intelligence that all act independently of each other.
Some criticize this for being too broad, and that some are just abilities.
Outcomes of Multiple Intelligence?
Better emotional relationships
Better grades in high school
Cope better with challenges in college
What have twin and adoption studies found about IQ
The more shared genes, the more similar their IQ is. The environment they are raised in also has an impact on their IQ.
How does breastfeeding impact IQ?
Breastfeeding for 6 months post birth tends to increase IQ by 7 to 9 percent.
How good are psychometric properties?
They are reliable and valid
Modern Intelligence Tests: Stanford - Binet
IQ tests, mainly used on children
Modern Intelligence Tests: Wechsler adult intelligence scale
Tests verbal skills and puzzles solving
Modern Intelligence Tests: Miller Analogy Test
Asks participants to draw analogies between things. An example of an “unbiased” test
How do cultural biases effect IQ tests?
Typically, white people score higher on IQ tests that African Americans
What is Stereotype Threat?
A mentality that can impact a person of a minority on IQ tests.
To suffer from this, you must be part of a minority, and be aware of that.
What is an emotion?
An immediate positive or negative response to a physiological response
What are moods?
Moods last longer, and may not have an identifiable trigger.
What are primary emotions?
Emotions that are shared across cultures (Ex: Happiness, Anger, ect.)
What are secondary emotions?
A blend of primary emotions
Theories of emotions: Afolk Psychology
Stimulus Occurs
Perception/Interpretation
A particular emotion is experienced
Specific pattern of autonomic Arousal
Theories of emotions: Criticisms Afolk Psychology
Many take issue with the fact that we can react before we feel the emotions
Theories of emotions: B James Lange
Stimulus Occurs
Perception/Interpretation
Specific pattern of autonomic Arousal
A particular emotion is experienced
Theories of emotions: Criticism of B James Lange
The autonomic arousal is too slow compared to the emotional reactions
Theories of emotions: Cannon-Bard
Stimulus Occurs
Perception/Interpretation
A particular emotion is experienced AND autonomic arousal occurs at the same time
Theories of emotions: Criticism of Cannon-Bard
Just because the two happen at the same time, doesn’t mean they’re related to each other
Theories of emotions: Two Factor Theory
Proposed by Schacter and Singer
Claims that the body responds to out cognitive interpretation of the situation or stimulus, which is labeled as an emotion.
Two Factor Theory: Primary/Secondary appraisals
Primary: Is this threatening to me?
Secondary: Can I deal with it?
Schacter and Singer experiment
Subjects were split into two groups, and injected with Epinephrine. Group A knew they would have side effects, while group B didn’t. Both were then placed by an actor, who acted angry or happy.
Group A wouldn’t change their attitudes, but group B’s attitude would change to reflect that of the actors.
This helped prove that when we are emotionally stimulated, we look to our environment as for why.
Misattribution of arousal
Attributing an emotional arousal from the environment onto something else
Ex: The woman on the tall bridge experiment
How do emotional expression vary upon cultures?
Many Isolated, non-literate groups don’t recognize emotions like surprise or disgust.
In Japan, they do not display anger or disgust
How do we use our body to display emotions?
We use our eyes and mouth to signal emotions
In pride, we tend to raise our arms and stick our chest out.
Emotional Contagion
The transferring of emotions to others
Can emotional contagion happen on social media?
Yes, as found by a study done by facebook in 2014
Abraham Maslov’s theory of hierarchy of needs
Believes that our needs are ordered, and that we should strive to fulfil the needs on the bottom to be satisfied first.
In Order:
Food/Water
Security
Friendship
Good Self Image
Live
Drive Reduction Theory
We have a need, which causes a drive, which motivates our behavior
Ex: Food (Need), Hunger (Drive), Eating (Behavior)
Yerkers - Dodson Law
Too much or too little stimulation can lead to poor performance
Pleasure Principle
Claims we seek pleasure, and avoid pain or distress
Incentives: Extrincic Motivation
Doing something to achieve a goal
Ex: Getting a good grade in a class
Incentives: Intrinsic Motivation
Doing something because you want too
Ex: Taking a class because you like the topic
Self Determination Theory
The innate need to feel good at something
Self Perception Theory
When an extrinsic need interferes interferes with an intrinsic need
Ex: I like playing guitar, but I have to do it for money
How is hunger impacted by Psychology?”
Hunger persists even when the stomach is removed, showing it is Psychological
What do the hormones of Glucose, Ghrelin, and Leptin impact hunger?
Glucose: Tells use we aren’t hungry
Ghrelin: Tells us we’re hungry
Leptin: Tells us we’re full
Parts of the brain: Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Tells us when to stop eating
Parts of the brain: Lateral Hypothalamus
Tells use we’re hungry
Parts of the brain: Nucleus Acumens
Activates when we see food we desire
Attitudes
People’s evaluations of objects, events, or ideas
Simple Attitude
You’re attitude and behavior on something are consistent
Ex: I hate cigarettes and don’t smoke
Complex Attitudes
You’re attitude and behavior aren’t consistent
Ex: I hate cigarettes but still smoke
How do attitudes develop?
Learning
Operant conditioning
Classical conditioning
Modeling people around us
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
A complex attitude can lead to stress and anxiety
Post - Decisional Dissonance
Rationalizing a choice after making it to reduce stress
Implicit Stereotype
A stereotype someone pushes without realizing
Explicit Stereotype
A stereotype someone pushes and knows it
Self Fulfilling Prophecy
When expectations of someone or yourself becomes reality
Difference between prejudice and discrimination?
Prejudice is an attitude, and discrimination is the actual behavior
Social categorization: Ingroups vs Outgroups
Ingroups: People we align with
Outgroups: People we don’t align with
How do we treat people in our ingroups vs our outgroups?
We believe our ingroups are more varied, while outgroups are “all the same”
Sherif and Colleagues Robbers Cave Study (1961)
Recruited boys for a summer camp, and split them into teams
They then had them compete against each other in various games
They found this led to the boys fighting against each other outside of the games, creating enemies.
However, they then made challenges that could only be done by them working together, which led to the boys becoming friends
Social Facilitation vs Social loafing
Facilitation: Being in a group enhances performance
Loafing: Being in a group worsens performance
Ex: Blindfold/Headphone study
Deindividuation
A state of reduced individuality, self awareness, and attention to personal standards as a result of group association
Ex: The Stanford prison study guards
Group Decision making: Risky Shift
In a group, we are more or less likely to make a risky choice based on the rest of the group
Group Polarization
In a group, we are more likely to align with the most vocal of the group
Groupthink
An extreme form of group polarization, where dissention is discouraged. “It’s the right thing”
Normative influence
Act like a group around you to avoid looking like a fool
Ex: Solomon Asch’s line study
Informational Influence
We look to others on how to behave in an ambiguous situation
Ex: Fire Drill
Foot in the door technique
After agreeing to a small request, someone is more likely to agree to a larger rquest
Door in the face technique
After asking for a large request, and being told no, a person is more likely to agree to a smaller request
Ex: “wanna see a movie”, “no”, “Ok, how about coffee?”
Lowballing
After agreeing to purchase something for a price, we stick to the purchase even after being hit with an extra charge
Ex: Buying a car, but there’s an “extra charge”
What percentage of Milgram’s study of experience went up to the max charge
65%
Bystander Intervention Effect
The failure to help people in need when we are in a group