AP Psychology: Unit 0

History of Psychology, Research Methods

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Humanistic Perspective

by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers: stressed individual choice, free will, personal growth and self-actualization.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Belief that our unconscious mind controls most of our thoughts and actions, however, this is controversial because unconsciousness cannot be studied.

Biopsychology (or Neuroscience) Perspective

Human thought and behavior is explained strictly through biological processes: genes, hormones, neurotransmitters.

Evolutionary (Darwinian) Perspective

by Charles Darwin: Our thoughts and actions are dependent on natural selection, traits/behaviors are given by past evolution and exist to be advantageous to survival.

Behavioral Perspective

Thoughts and actions are explained in terms of conditioning, only considers observable and outward behaviors.

Cognitive Perspective

Examine human thoughts and behaviors in terms of interpreting and processing events, the way we view the world.

Social Cultural (Sociocultural Perspective)

Thoughts and behaviors vary across cultures, cultural norms can explain certain traits.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

A combination of biological, psychological and social factors, in which all three are equally important to our decisions.

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to think that they knew it all along.

Overconfidence Bias

Tendency to place overconfidence on the things we believe in.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to pay more attention to information that reinforces, validates and supports our pre-existing ideas.

Qualitative Research

Subjective, variation in responses, complex textual responses.

Quantitative Research

Objective, numerical measures, easier to analyze.

Hypothesis

Prediction, expresses a relationship between two variables.

Variable

Anything that can vary in research.

Independent Variable

Cause, the variable being manipulated.

Dependent Variable

Effect, the variable being influenced.

Falsifiable

Hypothesis must be testable and there must be a possibility to gather data which would controvert the hypothesis.

Operational Definitions

Explaining how a variable will be measured.

Validity

The extent to which the research measures what it is supposed to measure.

Reliability

Consistency of results and whether the research can be replicated.

Sample

Subset of the population.

Population

Group of people with shared similar characteristics.

Representative Sample

This is a sample of the whole population.

Random Sampling

Every member has an equal chance of being selected, so findings can be generalized to the larger population.

Convenience Sampling

Data from people who are accessible to you (eg. friends, family, colleagues from work).

Stratified Sampling

The population is divided into subcategories and random sampling occurs within those categories.

Sampling Bias

When the sample doesn’t accurately reflect the population.

Experimental Method

To study the cause-effect relationship between variables.

Laboratory Experiments

Conducted in a lab, highly controlled.

Field Experiments

Conducted out in the world, more realistic.

Confounding Variable

Any difference between the experimental and control conditions, except for the IV that might affect the DV.

Random Assignment

Each participant has an equal chance of being placed into a group. Diminishes the chance that participants in the two groups differ in any meaningful way.

Experimenter Bias

Tendency for researchers to influence outcomes by treating the experimental and control groups differently, likely to increase the chance of confirming their own hypothesis.

Double-Blind Study

Both participants and researchers don’t know their group.

Single-Blind Study

Participants don’t know their group.

Hawthorne Effect

When the subject of a study alters their behavior due to them being aware that they are being observed.

Social Desirability Bias

Tendency to act in ways that reflect well upon oneself.

Placebo Effect

Giving a saline solution to separate the physiological effects of the drug from those who think they took a drug.

Directionality Problem (Temporal Precedence)

The inability to tell which of the variables came first.

Correlational Method

Does not study cause-effect, only correlation. This is sometimes a base for further research.

Survey Method

Asking people to fill out surveys.

Naturalistic Observation

Unobtrusive observation on the field, to get a realistic and rich picture of behavior. Control is sacrificed.

Descriptive Statistics

Simply describe a set of data.

Inferential Statistics

Whether findings can be applied to a larger population than the selected sample.

Central Tendency

Measures which attempt to mark the center of a distribution.

Statistical Significance

p value of 0.05. This means that only a 5% chance exists that the results occurred by chance. p value is never 0 because we can never be a 100% certain.

Effect Size

Practicality and applicability to the real-world.

Defensible Claim

Statement or argument supported by logical reasoning or evidence.

Animal Research

Clear scientific purpose which is importance, animals must be cared and housed in a humane way, acquire legally and design procedures with the least amount of suffering possible.

No Coercion

Participation must be voluntary.

Informed Consent

Participants must be aware of their involvement in research and provide consent. Deception cannot be invalidating to informed consent.

Informed Assent

For minors, they may also need the consent of their guardians.

Confidentiality or Anonymity

Privacy of participants must be protected, their identities and actions must not be revealed by the researchers.

Risk

Protection from harm. Temporary distress is permissible. Long-term mental or physical harm must be avoided.

Debriefing

After the experiment they must be informed of the purpose of the study and ways to contact the researchers. Even more important in terms of deception experiments.

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic Perspective

Carl Rogers

Humanistic Perspective

Sigmund Freud

Psychodynamic Perspective

Watson, Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner

Behavioural Perspective

Jean Piaget

Cognitive Perspective

Meisser, Vygotsky

Cognitive Perspective

Case Study

in-depth analysis of individuals or groups

Naturalistic Observations

Recording the natural behaviours of many individuals

Surveys/Interviews

Asking people questions

Random Assignment

Being placed in the control vs experimental group

Basic Research

Gathers information and data on a subject

Applied Research

Using data in a real-life scenario

Quazi

When the IV can’t be manipulated (ie. earthquake)

Counselling Psychologist

Any mental health concern, less severe

Clinical Psychologist

Diagnosed mental disorders, severe nature

Psychiatrist

Medical doctors, can prescribe medicine

Meta Analysis

Statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic to reach a conclusion

Theory

A phenomenon explained by a tested hypothesis