CAS101 Study Guide - Midterm

Which one is NOT a period of development?

All are periods of development

Prenatal Development

conception through birth

Infancy and Toddlerhood

birth through two years

Early Childhood

3 to 5 years

Middle Childhood

6 to 11 years

Adolescence

12 years to adulthood

Primary concerns during Prenatal Development are…

nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and delivery

The two years of life are ones of dramatic…

growth and change, from nothing to a walking + talking toddler within a relatively short period of time

Early childhood is also referred to as…

the preschool years and consists of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling

True or False: The ages of six through eleven comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school

True

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall…

physical growth spurt and “pleasure” maturation, known as puberty

Continuity

the view that development is a gradual, continuous process influenced by internal biological factors

Discontinuity

the view that development is a slow, continuous process with sudden shifts or “leaps”

Theorists such as Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg (stage theorists) believed in _________, while Vygotsky and information processing theorists believed in __________

Discontinuity; Continuity

Observational Studies

involve watching and recording the actions of participants

In general, observational studies have the strength of…

allowing the researcher to see how people behave rather than relying on self-report

A major weakness of observational studies is that they do not…

allow the researcher to explain causal relationships

Observational studies are useful and widely used when…

studying children

What are three types of Research Designs?

Longitudinal, Cross-sectional, Sequential

Longitudinal

involves beginning with a group of people who may be of the same age and background, and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time

Cross-sectional

involves beginning with a sample that represents a cross-section of the population.

Sequential

involves combining aspects of the previous two techniques; beginning with a cross-sectional sample and measuring them through time

Longitudinal advantages are…

Examines changes within individuals over time; Provides a developmental analysis

Cross-sectional advantages are…

Examines changes between participants of different ages at the same point in time; Provides information on age related change

Sequential advantages are…

Examines changes within individuals over time; Examines changes between participants of different ages at the same point in time; Can be used to examine cohort effects

Longitudinal disadvantages are…

Expensive; Takes a long time; Participant attrition; Possibility of practice effects; Cannot examine cohort effects

Cross-sectional disadvantages are…

Cannot examine change over time; Cannot examine cohort effects

Sequential disadvantages are…

May be expensive; Possibility of practice effects

Psychosexual Theory

Sigmund Freud; His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children’s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policymakers for many years

Freud’s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self…

id, ego, superego

Id

part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is guided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do

Ego

develops through interaction with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle. It has the ability to delay gratification. It knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates between the id and superego using logic and reality to calm the other parts of the self

Superego

represents society’s demands for its members. It is guided by a sense of guilt. Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of it

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory has five stages. What are they?

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital Stage

The oral stage lasts from…

birth until around age 2

The anal stage coincides with…

potty training or learning to manage biological urges

The phallic stage occurs in…

early childhood

Latency occurs during…

middle childhood

The genital stage begins with…

puberty and continues through adulthood

Psychosocial Theory

Erik Erikson; suggested that our relationships and society’s expectations motivate much of our behavior

Erikson believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ____ has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the ____.

Ego; Id

Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages. What are they?

Trust vs. mistrust, Autonomy vs. shame and doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. inferiority, Identity vs. role confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. stagnation, Integrity vs. Despair

Trust vs. mistrust

The infant must have basic needs met in a consistent way in order to feel that the world is a trustworthy place

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

Mobile toddlers have newfound freedom they like to exercise and by being allowed to do so, they learn some basic independence

Initiative vs. Guilt

Preschoolers like to initiate activities and emphasize doing things “all by myself”

Industry vs. inferiority

School aged children focus on accomplishments and begin making comparisons between themselves and their classmates

Identity vs. role confusion

Teenagers are trying to gain a sense of identity as they experiment with various roles, beliefs, and ideas

Intimacy vs. Isolation

In our 20s and 30s we are making some of our first long-term commitments in intimate relationships

Generativity vs. stagnation

The 40s through the early 60s we focus on being productive at work and home and are motivated by wanting to feel that we’ve made a contribution to society

Integrity vs. Despair

We look back on our lives and hope to like what we see-that we have lived well and have a sense of integrity because we lived according to our beliefs

Behaviorism

a theoretical perspective in psychology that emphasizes the role of learning and observable behaviors in understanding human and animal actions

Theorists who practiced Behaviorism are…

Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner

Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian or respondent conditioning)

learning through association; two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal

Once the bell had become an event to which the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a _____________.

conditioned stimulus

Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned (unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is _________ and one is ____________.

natural (unconditioned); learned (conditioned)

Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner; is a form of associative learning in which an organism learns to associate a behavior with its consequence (suggested that reinforcement is a more effective means of encouraging a behavior than is criticism or punishment)

Reinforcer

something that encourages or promotes a behavior

Positive reinforcement

involves adding something to a situation in order to encourage a behavior

Negative reinforcement

occurs when taking something unpleasant away from a situation encourages behavior

Punishment

an effort to stop a behavior. It means to follow an action with something unpleasant or painful

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura; He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others

Bandura suggests that there is interplay between the _________ and the individual.

environment

We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we ________ our surroundings (Social Learning Theory)

influence

Bandura most famous experiment is the…

Bobo Doll Experiment

Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget; describes cognitive development as a progression through four distinct stages, where children’s thinking becomes progressively more advanced and nuanced

Piaget believed our desire to understand the world comes from a need for cognitive __________.

equilibrium

Schema

categories of knowledge

Assimilation

the process of integrating new information into existing cognitive structures or schemas

Accommodation

the cognitive process of modifying existing mental schemas or creating new ones when new information or experiences cannot be adequately interpreted through current mental frameworks

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development has four stages. What are they?

Sensorimotor Stage, Preoperational Stage, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational

Sensorimotor Stage

children rely on use of the senses and motor skills. From birth until about age 2, the infant knows by tasting, smelling, touching, hearing, and moving objects around

Preoperational Stage

children from ages 2 to 7, become able to think about the world using symbols. The use of language, whether it is in the form of words or gestures, facilitates knowing and communicating about the world

Concrete Operational

children ages 7 to 11, develop the ability to think logically about the physical world. Middle childhood is a time of understanding concepts such as size, distance, and constancy of matter, and cause and effect relationships.

Formal Operational

at about age 12, acquire the ability to think logically about concrete and abstract events. The teenager who has reached this stage is able to consider possibilities and to contemplate ideas about situations that have never been directly encountered.

Zone of proximal development

describes the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable other (like a teacher or peer)

Scaffolding

the temporary support system that helps learners progress through their ZPD until they can perform tasks on their own. The level of assistance is high when a task is new and is gradually withdrawn as the learner gains competence

Ecological Systems Model

Urie Bronfenbrenner; posits that an individual’s development emerges from interconnected environmental systems, spanning intimate (family) to societal (culture) levels

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model consists of three models. What are they?

Microsystems, Mesosystems, Exosystem, Macrosystems, Chronosystem

Microsystems

impact a child directly. These are the people with whom the child interacts such as parents, peers, and teachers. The relationship between individuals and those around them need to be considered. For example, to appreciate what is going on with a student in math, the relationship between the student and teacher should be known.

Mesosystems

are interactions between those surrounding the individual. The relationship between parents and schools, for example will indirectly affect the child.

Exosystem

Larger institutions such as the mass media or the healthcare system are referred to as this. These have an impact on families and peers and schools who operate under policies and regulations found in these institutions

Macrosystems

We find cultural values and beliefs at the level of this. These larger ideals and expectations inform institutions that will ultimately impact the individual.

Chronosystem

All of this happens in an historical context referred to as this. Cultural values change over time, as do policies of educational institutions or governments in certain political climates. Development occurs at a point in time.

Teratogens

are environmental factors that can contribute to birth defects, and include some maternal diseases, pollutants, drugs and alcohol

True or False: High levels of stress in pregnancy have also been correlated with problems in the baby’s brain development and immune system functioning, as well as childhood problems such as trouble paying attention and being afraid

True

True or False: Stress-related hormones may NOT cause these complications by affecting a woman’s immune systems resulting in an infection and premature birth

False

The first stages of vaginal stages include…

Labor has just begun; the chance of experiencing false labor; is typically the longest period of birth; the cervix or opening to the uterus dilates to 10 centimeters or just under 4 inches. This may take around 12-16 hours for first children or about 6-9 hours for women who have previously given birth. Labor may also begin with a discharge of blood or amniotic fluid

The second stages of vaginal stages include…

The passage of the baby through the birth canal; This stage takes about 10-40 minutes. Contractions usually come about every 2-3 minutes; At this stage, an episiotomy, or incision made in the tissue between the vaginal opening and anus, may be performed to avoid tearing the tissue of the back of the vaginal opening; The baby's mouth and nose are suctioned out. The umbilical cord is clamped and cut

The third stages of vaginal stages include…

Labor is relatively painless; the placenta or afterbirth is delivered and is typically delivered during afterbirth; If an episiotomy was performed it is stitched up during this stage

APGAR test

is conducted one minute and five minutes after birth. This is a very quick way to assess the newborn's overall condition. Five measures are assessed: Heart rate, respiration, muscle tone (assessed by touching the baby's palm), reflex response (the Babinski reflex is tested), and color

An APGAR score of >7 is considered ________, while a score of ≤3 is considered ___________.

Normal; Critical

The average newborn in the United States weighs about ___ pounds and is about __ inches in length

7.5; 20

What are two hormones important in the growth process?

Human Growth Hormone; Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

Human Growth Hormone

influences all growth except that in the Central Nervous System

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

the hormone influencing growth in the CNS

Sucking

Suck on anything that touches the lips

Rooting

Turning the head when the cheek is touched

Grasp

Fingers automatically grip anything that touches the palm of the hand

Babinski

The toes will fan out and curl when the sole of the foot is stroked from heel to toe

Moro

A sudden noise or loss of support to the head and neck will cause infants to spread out their arms and legs then quickly contract the limbs inward