Anatomy Honors Semester 1 Final

What are the terms for the three planes of the body?

1\. Median (midsagiittal/sagittal)

2\. Frontal (coronal)

3\. Transverse

what are exact terms used for in anatomy?

1\. position

2\. direction

3\. regions

4\. structures

what are the orientation and directional terms (11)

1\. superior and inferior

2\. anterior and posterior

3\. medial and lateral

4\. intermediate and proximal

5\. superficial and deep

6\. distal

what are the 4 primary adult tissue types?

1\. Epithelial

2\. Connective

3\. Muscular

4\. Neural

What are the different types/shapes of ET

1\. Simple Squamous

2\. Simple Cuboidal

3\. Simple Columnar

4\. Stratified Squamous

5\. Stratified Cuboidal

6\. Stratified Columnar

7\. Granular Epithelium

What are the general characteristics of CT?

1\. Specialized cells

2\. Solid extracellular protein fibers

3\. Fluid extracellular ground substance

4\. Common orgin - mesenchyme

5\. Different degrees of vascularity

What are some major structural differences between that and Epithelial tissue?

Epithelial tissue lines the cavities of organs/covers exposed surfaces; while connective tissue supports, connects and separates different tissues and organs

Besides cells, what are the other two components that CT is composed of?

- matrix and extracellular fibers (also has elastic and collagen fibers)

what is the matrix made of?

1\. fibers and ground substance

2\. majority of tissue volume

3\. determines specialized function

What is ground substance?

- fluid extracellular substance, semi-homogenous substance of tissue

What are three CT fiber types and name the type of cells that may compose CT.

1\. Collagen: strongest and most abundant (tendons/ligaments)

2\. Elastic: long and thin, able to stretch/recoil (elastic ligaments of vertebrae)

3\. Reticular: Short and fine, form networks (Sheaths around organs)

What are the 3 types of Epithelial Membrane?

1\. Mucous membranes

2\. Serous membranes

3\. Cutaneous membranes

Explain mucous membranes. (location)

\- in cavities opening onto the body surface (mouth, anus)

\- in organs that form part of the tube opening on surface (stomach, respiratory tract)

Explain Serous Membranes (location)

\- Line on body cavities not opening to the outside and covers the organs within them (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum)

\- Visceral part covers the organs

\- Parietal part lines the cavity walls

Explain cutaneous Membranes (location/type)

\- skin

\- dry membrane

What are some major structured within muscle and nerve tissues

Muscle: specialized for contraction (fascicles, perimysium, endomysium)

Neural: carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another (dendrites, cell body, axon)

What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?

1\. Endocrine: secretes directly into the intercellular space

2\. Exocrine: secretes into ducts that open onto a surface

What is the difference between merocrine and apocrine glands?

1\. Apocrine Glands

\- Open onto hair follicles

\- Secretion is thicker- source of body odor due to bacteria

\- Start at puberty; may be analogous to the sexual scent glands of other animals

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2\. Merocrine Glands

\- Most common

\- Mainly palms, soles of feet, forehead

\- Produces watery mixture of salts, antibodies, and metabolic wastes

What tissue types compose the epidermis and dermis?

Epidermis: stratified squamous ET
Dermis: areolar and dense irregular CT

What are the major layers of the epidermis. (5 layers)

1\. Stratum Basal (germinatrum)

2\. Stratum Spinosum (second layer)

3\. Stratum Granulosum

4\. Stratum Lucidium

5\. Stratum corneum (fifth layer)

What is the function of the stratum basal?

\- The deepest layers

\- Closest to the dermal blood supply

\- Single layer of columnar or cuboidal cells

\- Mitotic layer

\- Keratinization (waterproof) happens here

What is the function of the stratum spinosum?

\- Cells become irregularly shaped; separated by narrow, translucent clefts

\- Spine-like cytoplasmic extensions interconnect the cells (spinous cells)

\- Thick skin: a few layers of flattened cells

\- Thin skin: only one layer may be visible Nuclei begin to degenerate

What is the function of the Stratum granulosum?

\- Thick skin: a few layers of flattened cells

\- Thin skin: only one layer may be visible - Nuclei begin to degenerate

What is the function of the stratum lucidium?

\- Several dead layers of flattened dead cells

\- Faint nuclear outlines are visible in only a few cells

\- Tough to identify in thin skin

What is the function of the stratum corneum?

\- About 30 layers thick (¾ of the epidermis)

\- Individual cells are difficult to observe because- Nuclear are gone/barely visible

\- Very flat

\- Spaces between cells is filled with lipids → cement the cells together

\- Protection of the body due to this layer

What are the major layers and function of the Dermis?

1\. **dermis:** numerous collagen and elastic fibers; thickest layer of skin

2\. **dermal papillae:** create irregular border between epidermis and dermis; found in thick skin

3\. **reticular:** composed of dense irregular CT, well vascularized, rich sensory and sympathetic nerve supply. (thick bottom layer of dermis/inner layer of skin)

What factors normally contribute to skin color?

**1. Reddish skin**

\- due to hemoglobin in the red blood cells, which pass through the capillaries beneath the epidermis

**2. Carotene (yellowish pigment)**

\- Accumulates in adipocytes found in the dermis and hypodermis

**3. Melanocytes**

\- Make melanin

\- brown pigment; protects DNA of mitotic basal cells from UV damage

\- In the epidermis

\- Melanosomes (organelles that contain melanin) Transfer melanin to keratinocytes

\- mainly to basal cells

What are a few other factors that attribute to change in skin color based on homeostatic imbalances?

Albinism: melanocytes completely fail to secrete melanin- hair and skin can be white

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Vitiligo: loss of pigment in certain areas
freckles/moles- melanin becomes concentrated in local areas

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Freckles and moles: melanin becomes concentrated in local areas

what are some other skin coloration causes?

Cyanosis: bluish-skin due to poorly oxygenated blood

Blushing and going pale: dilation and constriction of blood vessels, respectively

What is the body's response to disease that includes pigmentation?

Jaundice: bilirubin is deposited in skin; diseased liver is unable to excrete this pigment

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Bruise: indicates clotting in broken blood vessels

What is the location/structure/function of sweat (sudoriferous) glands.

**Sweat Glands:**

\- Distributed everywhere except the nipples and parts of the external genitalia

\- Millions per person; two forms 

\- Prevents overheating

What are the types of sweat glands? (2)

**1. Eccrine/Merocrine glands** (most common)

\- Mainly palms, soles of feet, and forehead

\- Produces watery mixture of salts, antibodies, and metabolic wastes

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**2. Apocrine glands**

\- armpits, anogenital areas, and areolar of the breasts

\- Open onto fair follicles

\- Secretion is thicker → source of body odor due to bacteria

\- Starts at puberty, may be analogous to the sexual scent glands of others

What is the location/function of Sebaceous (oil) glands

**Sebaceous glands (oil):**

\- Secret sebum 

\- Everywhere except on the palms and soles 

Secretes into hair follicles

What is the purpose of oil glands?

**Purpose:**

\- Keeps hair from becoming brittle; skin softness 

\- Prevents excessive evaporation

\- Contains a bacterial agent that inhibits the growth of a certain bacteria

Name two modified apocrine glands of the skin and discuss the functions of each.

1\. Ceruminous glands (earwax)

2\. Mammary glands (milk)

Describe the functional relationship of arrector pili muscles to the hair follicle

The arrector pili muscle causes goosebumps to occur, which then causes the hair follicles to stand up

What two major types of hair are found on the body and give location.

1\. Vellus hair: pale, fine hair found on children and females

2\. Terminal hair: coarse, longer hair of eyebrows and scalp

how are nails structured?

\- stratified tissue with hard keratin

\- protect distal ends of phalanges

\- Cuticle: fold of stratum corneum on the proximal end of nail

What are at least 6 different functions of the skin?

1\. protection of underlying tissues and organs; protects against fluid loss and micro-organisms

2\. excretion of salts, water, and organic wastes (glands)

3\. Maintenance of body temperature (insulation and evaporation)

4\. Production of melanin

5\. Production of keratin

6\. Synthesis of Vitamin D3

7\. Storage of lipids

8\. Detection of touch, pressure, pain, and temperature

What are the 3 major types of skin cancer?

1\. Malignant Melanoma

2\. Basal Cell carcinoma

3\. Squamous cell carcinoma

What are the characteristics of Malignant Melanoma?

1\. most lethal, but least common

2\. highly metastatic (spreads)

3\. resistant to chemotherapy

4\. usually appears as spreading brown or red splotch

5\. early detection is essential

What are the characteristics of Basal Cell Carcinoma?

1\. least malignant, most common

2\. occurs most often on sun-exposed surfaces

3\. shiny dome-shaped nodule that later develops a central ulcer with a pearly beaded edge

What are the characteristics of Squamous cell carcinoma?

\- arises from keratinocytes

\- scaly, reddened papule most often on the head and hands

\- grows rapidly and metastasizes if not removed

Why are serious burns life threatening (4 reasons)

1\. Catastrophic loss of body fluids containing proteins and electrolytes, which results in dehydration and electrolyte imbalance

2\. Can lead to kidney shutdown and cardiac shock (reduced blood volume)

3\. Infection: the leading cause of death in burn patients because of pathogens invading where the skin barrier is destroyed

4\. Immune system becomes deficient

What does 1st degree burn mean

**1st degree: Partial Thickness burn**

\- only epidermis is damages

\- erythema (red skin), mild edema (shedding), surface layer shed

\- no scarring

What does 2nd degree burn mean

**2nd degree: Deep Partial-layer burns**

\- Destroys the epidermis

\- blisters form

\- healing depends on survival of accessory organs

\- no scars unless infected

What does 3rd degree burn mean

**3rd degree: Full-Thickness Burn**

\- destroys epidermis, dermis and accessory organs of the skin

\- healing occurs from margins inward

\- skin grafting may be needed

(auto-graft: tissue tissue transplanted from same person)

(Homo-graft: tissue transplanted from another person)

How is keratin Protective?

it helps support your skin, heal wounds, and keep your nails and hair healthy. If the skin did not have that the skin would not be waterproof and it would damage more easily.

What is the pigment responsible for skin and hair color and the cell that makes it?

\- Melanin is the pigment responsible for skin and hair color

\- made by melanocytes

What is the structure and function of subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)?

\- beneath the epidermis and dermis

\- mostly adipose tissue

\- anchors skin

\- shock absorber/insulator

What are 4 examples of epidermal derivatives?

1\. sweat glands

2\. sebaceous (oil) glands

3\. Hair

4\. Nails

What are the functional properties of cartilage tissue?

1\. Hyaline Cartilage: provides support w/ flexibility and resilience

2\. Elastic cartilage: very flexible, found in external ear

3\. Fibrocartilage: highly compressible, great tensile strength, occurs in areas that have both heavy pressure and compression

What is cartilage tissue made up?

collagen and elastic fibers

Where are the major cartilages of the adult skeleton located?

1\. hyaline: lines joints and caps the ends of bones

2\. elastic: external ear and epiglottic

3\. Fibrocartilage: points of attachment from tendons to bones (ex. meniscus)

What are the major regions (2) of the skeleton and their relative functions?

Axial Skeleton:

\- skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, thoracic cage, sternum

\- supports and protects brain, spinal cord, and organs

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Appendicular Skeleton:

\- limbs and girdles, bones that connect to pectoral and pelvic girdles

\- supports the attachment and functions of the upper and lower limbs of the human body.

What are the 6 bone classes/ shapes and give an example of each

1\. long bones (femur, humerus, phalanges)

2\. short bones (carpals, tarsals)

3\. Sesamoid bones (patella)

4\. Wormian bones (extra bone piece w/ suture in cranium)

5\. flat bones (cranium, ribs, sternum)

6\. Irregular (vertebrae, pelvis)

List and describe five important functions of bones

1\. support the body

2\. protects soft organs

3\. Allows movement due to attached skeletal muscles

4\. stores growth factors

5\. storage of minerals and fats

6\. blood cell formation

What is the anatomy of a typical long bone?

\- longer than wide

\- shaft with heads at both end (proximal and distal)

\- Mostly Compact bone

What is the anatomy of a flat bone?

\- thin and flat, usually curves

\- thing layers of compact bone around a layer of spongy bone

Function and location of red marrow

\- in the medullary cavity of flat bones

\- has stem cells that grow into red blood cells, white blood cells, an platelets

Function and location of yellow marrow

\- in medullary cavity of the shaft of long bones

\- stores fat

function/location of articular cartilage

\- covers surface of the epiphysis (proximal/distal)

\- hyaline cartilage

\- decreases friction of joint

function/location of endosteum

\- delicate CT membrane

\- covers the trabeculae of spongy bone

\- lines canals that pass through compact bone

function/location of periosteum

\- covers diaphysis

\- the sheath outside your bones that supplies them with blood, nerves and the cells that help them grow and heal.

\- anchor point for tendons and ligaments

osteoblasts

cells responsible for forming new bone

osteoclasts

break down bone for remodeling and release of calcium

Osteocytes

primary cell in mature bone; responsible for maintaining the matrix

Explain and describe the 4 internal steps of a fracture repair

1\. Hematoma (blood-filled swelling_ is formed/seals the fracture site

2\. Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus

3\. Fibrocartilage callus is turned into a bony callus by osteoblasts

4\. Bony callus is remodeled to from a permanent patch by osteoclasts

disorders of bone remodeling: **osteoporosis**

\- bone breakdown occurs faster than formation

\- bones become weak and porous

disorders of bone remodeling: **osteomalacia/rickets**

\- inadequate mineralization

\- most frequent cause is lack of vitamin d/sunlight

\- bones become soft and deformed

disorders of bone remodeling: **Paget’s disease**

\- haphazard bone deposit and resorption

\- abnormally high ratio of spongy bone to compact bone

What are the different structures in/around a synovial joint

\- Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage)

\- Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous articular capsule

\- Joint cavity with synovial fluid

\- Ligaments reinforce the joint

What are the different types of synovial joints and examples of each. (6)

1\. Plane joint - gliding (carpals)

2\. Hinge joint (humerus, ulna)

3\. Pivot joint (ulna, radius)

4\. Condyloid joint (metacarpals, phalanx)

5\. Saddle joint (carpals, metacarpal #1)

6\. Ball and Socket joint (head of humerus, scapula)

What are the three clinical forms of arthritis

1\. Osteoarthritis

2\. Rheumatoid arthritis

3\. Gouty arthritis

Unique characteristics of **osteoarthritis**

1\. most common chronic arthritis

2\. probably related to normal aging processes

Unique characteristics of **rheumatoid arthritis**

1\. autoimmune disease- the immune system attacks the joints

2\. symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain joints

3\. often leads to deformities

Unique characteristics of **Gouty arthritis**

\- inflammation of joints caused by deposition of urate crystals from blood

\- can usually be controlled w/ a diet

Functional classification of joints

1\. synarthrosis: immovable joints

2\. amphiarthrosis: slightly movable joints

3\. Diarthrosis: freely movable joints

structural classification of joints

1\. Fibrous joints: generally immovable

2\. Cartilaginous joints: immovable/slightly movable

3\. synovial joints: freely movable

how do hips widening affect females compared to males?

because females have wider hips to accommodate for pregnancy/giving birth,

1\. females are at a higher risk of knee injury and acl tears

2\. decreases speed and athletic explosiveness

what are the basic types of muscle tissues

1\. cardiac

2\. smooth

3\. skeletal

characteristics of cardiac muscles

\- Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated disc

\- Involuntary (in heart)

\- Steady pace/doesn’t tire

Characteristics of smooth muscles

\- No striations

\- Spindle - shaped cells

\- Single nucleated

\- Involuntary

\- Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs

\- Slow, sustained, and tireless

Characteristics of skeletal muscles

\- Striated

\- Multi-nucleated (used a lot=need more protein/nuclei)

\- Mostly attached by tendons to bones

\- Voluntary

\- Bundled by connective tissue 

\- great force, but tires easily

What are the 4 most important function of muscle tissue

1\. irritability: can receive/ respond to stimulus

2\. contractibility: ca shorten due to adequate stimulus

3\. extensibility: can be stretched/extended

4\. Elasticity: can recoil back to original length

How are skeletal muscles structured (CT wrappings of skeletal muscle)

1\. endomysium: around a single muscle fiber

2\. perimysium: around a fascicle of fibers

3\. epimysium: covers the entire muscle

4\. fascia: outside the epimysium

What is the smallest functional/contractile unit

sarcomere

microscopic structure/functional role of myofibrils

\- produce muscle contraction and relaxation

\- bundles of myofilaments, have distinct bands

\- I band= light band

\- A band= dark band

microscopic structure/functional role of sarcoplasmic reticulum

\- specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum

\- holds calcium ions

\- releases calcium ions into the sarcoplasm for the generation of action potential during muscle contraction.

microscopic structure/functional role of T-tubules

\- extension of sarcolemma that goes deep into the muscle cell

\- occurs at each A band-I band junction

Explain the Sliding Filament Theory

1\. activation by nerve causes myosin heads (crossbridges) to attach to binding sites on thin filaments

2\. myosin heads then bind to the next site of thin filament

3\. continued action causes a sliding of myosin head along the actin

4\. result = muscle is shortened (contraction)

Explain the Cross bridge Cycle

1\. Calcium

\- calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

\- they attach/bind to troponin causing tropomyosin to rotate and expose binding sites on the actin filament

2\. the myosin head attaches to the actin filament, and inorganic phosphate is released which strengthens the bond

3\. ADP is released, causing the myosin head to pivot and pull the actin filament towards the center of the sarcomere

4\. Another ATP molecule attaches to the myosin head, causing it to detach from the actin filament

5\. ATP is hydrolyzed into ADP and Inorganic Phosphate, and the released energy moves the myosin head back into the cocked position

what is a motor unit

\- motor neuron and what it controls

\- one neuron

\- muscle cells stimulated by that neuron

How are muscle fibers stimulated to contract

\- Neuromuscular junction/cross bridge cycle (actin filament being pulled to the middle of the sarcomere)

\- When an Action Potential Travels Along the Nerves to the Muscles.

Isotonic Contractions

\- myofilaments are able to slide pasted each other during contractions

\- the muscle shortens (concentric) or lengthens (eccentric)

Isometric contractions

\- tension in muscle increases

\- muscle is unable to shorten

\- the muscle does not change length

EX. holding a pen, posture being maintained

What are 3 ways in which ATP is regenerated during skeletal muscle contraction

1\. Direct phosphorylation

2\. Anaerobic Glycolysis (Respiration)

3\. Aerobic Respiration

Explain direct phosphorylation

\- muscle cells contain creatine phosphate (CP = high energy molecule)

\- CP transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP

\- CP supplies are exhausted in about 15-20 seconds

\- short-term, not efficient, fast (explosive)

Explain Anaerobic Glycolysis (Respiration)

\- breaks down glucose w/out oxygen, into pyruvic acid to produce some ATP (2 per glucose)

\- pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid

**- not as efficient, but is fast**

\- lactic acid produces muscle fatigue

\- huge amounts of glucose needed

Explain Aerobic Respiration

\- metabolic pathways that occur in the mitochondria

\- glucose is broken down to CO2 and H2O releasing energy

\- slower reaction that requires continuous O2 (36 ATP per glucose)