African American Psychology: 2nd Group Dialogue (stereotypes and stereotype threat, religion and spirituality, gender issues, etc.)

Progress in High School Graduation

Educational attainment for Black Americans has improved, with high school dropout rates dropping from 33% in 1968 to around 5% today, aligning with the national average.

College Completion Gap

While 36% of the general population holds a bachelor’s degree, only 26% of Black Americans ages 25+ have attained one, showing a continued gap in higher education.

Factors Affecting Dropout Rates

Dropout rates are influenced by poverty, segregation, and challenges with standardized testing, despite increased college enrollment for Black students (from 15% to 38%).

Retention & Persistence Challenges

Black students face lower retention and persistence rates compared to White and Asian students, with persistence rates at 64.9% for Black students vs. 86.5% for Asian students in 2019.

COVID-19 Impact

The COVID-19 pandemic worsened educational outcomes for Black students, causing a decline in persistence at public four-year institutions.

Financial Barriers

Financial Barriers

Overrepresentation in Special Education

Black students are 40% more likely to be identified with a disability than their peers and are disproportionately diagnosed with intellectual or behavioral disorders.

Disciplinary Disparities

Black students are more likely to face suspensions and expulsions than White students and are less likely to be placed in gifted programs due to implicit racial biases and unequal resources.

Ongoing Inequities in Education

Despite improvements, structural inequities and systemic biases continue to hinder the academic success of Black students in both K-12 and higher education.

Assumptions about school success

• To persist with school success one must be identified with school achievement (one must feel that they are accountable for their achievement, that it’s intimately tied to their personal identity) 

  • One must feel optimistic regarding the likelihood of achieving their educational goals – that they belong in school 

Threats to School Identification

• Lack of educational resources

• Few role models 

• Being ill-prepared to handle the rigors of academia 

  • Stereotype threat…

What is a stereotype?

• Perception of people or person 

  • Warped - don’t know much about them

  • Affirmed through expectations, but not necessarily facts

  • Limited info

• Overgeneralization rooted in assumptions 

  • Can be negative or positive, but are consistently harmful 

Stereotype threat defined

• Stereotype threat is a situational threat: someone with an identification with a domain (e.g., school) is in predicament (situation) that can threaten one with being negatively stereotyped, with being judged or treated stereotypically – or with fulfilling the stereotype

  • It can happen to anyone for whom a negative stereotype exists. Therefore, every individual is potentially vulnerable to stereotype threat, because every individual has at least one social identity that is targeted by a negative stereotype in some given situation

domains of stereotype threat

• A variety of studies have looked at different domains (situations) 

  • Financial negotiations

  • Safe driving

  • Memory performance 

  • Dunking in basketball

  • Et cetera

• If individuals are threatened emotionally by the prospect of being negatively stereotyped in a domain of personal importance, their performance will be impaired 

  • The stereotype must be salient

Best case scenario for stereotype threat

• According to Claude Steele, stereotype threat is not about internalizing the stereotype (truly believing for example that one is superior intellectually as a black person)...it’s more about identifying with the domain and a concern about being stereotyped in it 

• Why is this hopeful?

  • The thing that’s hopeful about it is that it means there is possibility for intervention…the person hasn’t internalized the stereotype necessarily, which means that the effect of the threat can be prevented 

Worst case scenario for stereotype threat

• Disidentification: a reconceptualization of the self and of one’s values so that the domain (education) is no longer a basis of self identity and self evaluation 

  • Positive: you no longer care about the domain in relation to yourself…hence, it is protective

    • Negative: it can undermine performance and motivation in the domain, leading to poor adjustment and possibly failure (academic or other domain)

The case of African Americans in Academia

• Academic performance situations increase concerns about confirming a negative stereotype

• Potential for increased concerns about confirming or being judged based on beliefs regarding the intellectual abilities of their racial group

Priming racial stereotypes in academia

• Empirically documented situations where African Americans may demonstrate lower academic performance even when they are academically capable, as reflected in aptitude scores (SAT or ACT scores) that are comparable to their European American peers 

  • Steele argues that this lower performance may be associated with the priming (making salient) of racial stereotypes about academic performance 

Steele & Aronson 1995 study on black and white college students academic performance and stereotype threat

• Condition #1: respondents were asked to complete a questionnaire that asked general questions about their background (e.g., age, gender, major) prior to undertaking an academic performance measure (control condition) 

• Condition #2: participants completed a similar questionnaire that ended with a question asking about their race (race prime condition) prior to taking an academic performance test 

  • Results: African American students in condition #2 (race prime) showed lower performance than both African American students in condition #1 and white students in either condition 

Beyond the internal thoughts of stereotype threat…

• Steele also raises questions as to whether subtle cues in the social environment (e.g., the manner in which instructors ask or respond to different students in their classes) communicate performance expectations 

  • Example:

    • A PE coach telling a little girl that she’ll need a head start while running with the boys in her class

Steele’s Recommendation for stereotype threat in education

“wise schooling”

Wise schooling: student-teacher relationships

• Optimistic teacher-student relationships - teachers mentor with direct optimism for their students’ ability 

  • “Challenge” valued over “remediation” - give challenging work to convey your respect for students’ potential and demonstrate that you do not regard them based on an “ability-demeaning stereotype”.

Wise schooling: challenge

• Provide students with challenging feedback that identifies areas for improvement and…

• Express your confidence that they can learn new strategies for studying, writing, or solving problems

  • “Strategy feedback” has been shown to increase students’ motivation. “Strategy feedback” is associated with a growth mindset

Wise schooling: expandable intelligence

• Stress the “expandability of intelligence”. Shatter the idea that intelligence is fixed and limited based on one’s racial group. If intelligence is viewed as incremental, then the sky's the limit 

• Create a learning environment in which mistakes and missteps are valued as opportunities for learning. Encourage students to “think out loud”, to ask questions, to embrace difficult problems, and to take intellectual risks. Model this by providing examples of challenging questions and problems that excite learning and scholarship and your own mistakes

Recommendations for the domain identified students

• Affirm their belongingness based on the student’s intellectual potential

• Utilize role models of the stereotype threatened group - show that the threat is not insurmountable

Recommendations for the domain unidentified students

• Socratic method is helpful especially for students who may have weakly identified with the domain or internalize doubts about their abilities. In this method questioning is used, but you are encouraging the students’ critical thinking rather than jumping on the right or wrong answer…slow building of trust 

  • Build self efficacy in the schooling domain - the idea that the student is capable of doing well and believes in their own ability to do well

"A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance," Claude Steele

In "A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance," Claude Steele suggests several strategies to address stereotype threat, which is the psychological burden of being at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about one’s social group. Steele emphasizes that stereotype threat can impair performance by creating anxiety, distraction, and undermining one’s sense of belonging and self-confidence in academic and intellectual settings. In summary, Steele’s approach to addressing stereotype threat focuses on creating supportive, inclusive environments that foster a growth mindset, reduce the salience of identity-based stereotypes, and emphasize effort and perseverance. By reshaping how students perceive challenges and their own potential, these strategies help mitigate the negative effects of stereotype threat on academic performance.

Reframe the Situation (Shifting Mindsets)

Steele suggests that one effective way to mitigate stereotype threat is to reframe the experience of test-taking or challenging tasks. By emphasizing that intelligence is not fixed but can be developed, students may be less vulnerable to the threat of confirming negative stereotypes. For example, framing an academic challenge as an opportunity for growth rather than a test of innate ability helps shift focus from fear of failure to a growth mindset, reducing the pressure of stereotype threat.

Acknowledge and Normalize the Experience

A critical approach Steele proposes is to openly acknowledge stereotype threat, both in academic settings and in wider conversations about race and identity. When people are aware that stereotype threat exists and is a common experience for people from marginalized groups, they may be able to buffer its effects. Steele also suggests that when students are told that others of their group have experienced the same challenges and succeeded, it can help them feel less isolated and more capable of overcoming the barriers stereotype threat creates.

Promote a Sense of Belonging and Support

Creating environments where students feel supported and valued can reduce the impact of stereotype threat. Steele advocates for creating a sense of belonging within academic settings by fostering inclusive teaching practices, mentorship, and support networks. For example, ensuring diverse representation among faculty and encouraging peer support systems can help students feel that they belong and that their identity is respected, which counteracts the sense of being at risk of confirming negative stereotypes.

Shift the Focus Away from Identity

Steele suggests that reducing the salience of one's identity in a given context can help mitigate stereotype threat. In contexts where identity-based stereotypes are prominent (such as race-based stereotypes in academic settings), de-emphasizing group identity can reduce the pressure students feel to conform to those stereotypes. For example, creating environments where individuals can express their personal identity without feeling it is being scrutinized or judged in relation to a stereotype may help reduce the impact of stereotype threat.

Increased Emphasis on Effort and Strategy

Encouraging students to focus on effort, strategy, and hard work—rather than on inherent intelligence—can help reduce the effects of stereotype threat. Steele's research suggests that when students believe that success is a result of effort and strategy rather than just talent or innate ability, they are less likely to be affected by stereotype threat. Educators can foster this mindset by praising effort and persistence, rather than just achievement or "natural" ability.

Encourage Positive Role Models

Exposure to positive role models who have succeeded despite facing similar challenges is another way to reduce the effects of stereotype threat. Steele suggests that seeing others from the same group succeed in academic or intellectual pursuits can serve as a powerful reminder that success is possible, even when faced with negative stereotypes. It can also inspire students to reframe their own potential and reduce feelings of self-doubt.

Stereotype Threat as a Social Psychological Phenomenon (Spencer et al.)

Stereotype threat is not just an individual’s problem; it reflects broader societal issues of inequality and bias. The threat of confirming a stereotype is a consequence of being part of a marginalized group in a society that holds certain stereotypes. As such, addressing stereotype threat requires both individual-level interventions and structural changes in societal attitudes.

Broader Implications for Social Inequality (Spencer et al.)

Stereotype threat contributes to the persistence of disparities in performance and achievement across social groups (e.g., racial, gender, and socio-economic groups). Understanding how stereotype threat works and how to mitigate its effects can be key to reducing inequality in education and other performance domains.

Black Women’s and Men’s Psychosocial Experiences

• Experiences must be placed in context that considers the complex interplay among race, class, and gender

• Each can lead to shared or different experiences of cultural traditions and systematic racial oppression

Stereotypes and Ideological Misrepresentations

Stereotypes and ideological misrepresentations of Black Women used to justify oppression or mistreatment

Historical stereotypes of Black women

jezebel, mammy, matriarch, sapphire

Jezebel stereotype

the loose woman. Hypersexual, animalistic

Mammy stereotype

 asexual, subservient, mother figure–non-threatening, she accepts the status quo and socializes her children to follow suit

Matriarch stereotype

polar opposite of the mammy, the matriarch is the anti-mother, lazy, unfeminine, and emasculating. She socializes her children to be lazy and promiscuous. Ronald Regan’s image of the “Welfare Queen”

Sapphire stereotype

 (Kingfish’s wife on the “Amos & Andy show”) is similar to the matriarch in some central features (e.g., unfeminine and emasculating) but she is also sassy and loud – even funny and entertaining

Summary of Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes (2006)

Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes is a powerful documentary directed by Byron Hurt that explores the culture of hip-hop, focusing on the relationship between masculinity, violence, race, and the portrayal of women in the genre. The film examines how hip-hop, particularly mainstream rap music, has evolved over the years and how its messages, lyrics, and imagery shape cultural understandings of identity, gender, and power.

Byron Hurt, a former college football player and passionate fan of hip-hop, uses the film as a personal journey to interrogate his own relationship with the genre and to critically analyze the troubling messages embedded in it. He interviews several prominent figures within the hip-hop community, including artists, producers, academics, and activists, to gain multiple perspectives on the impact of hip-hop on society.

Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes is a thought-provoking documentary that challenges viewers to think critically about the impact of hip-hop on society, especially regarding issues of race, gender, and violence. Byron Hurt’s personal journey and the voices of key figures within the hip-hop world provide a multifaceted view of the genre's cultural significance and its potential for positive change. The film calls for a reclamation of hip-hop’s roots, asking for an approach to the genre that is more inclusive, socially conscious, and reflective of the diverse experiences within the culture.

Masculinity in Hip-Hop

1. One of the central themes of the documentary is how hip-hop culture promotes a specific, often toxic version of masculinity. The film delves into the glorification of hyper-masculine traits like toughness, aggression, and dominance, especially in relation to how Black men are expected to present themselves in the public sphere. This image is tied to notions of "street credibility," but it often perpetuates stereotypes about Black men as violent, hypersexual, and unemotional.

Key Quote:
“The culture teaches men that you have to be hard, you have to be tough, you have to be fearless. You can’t be soft. You can’t be emotional.” – Byron Hurt

Violence and Aggression in Hip Hop

1. The documentary critiques the pervasive presence of violence and aggression in hip-hop lyrics and music videos. Hurt interviews several hip-hop artists about the glorification of violence, and many, including rapper and producer Chuck D, argue that this violence often reflects deeper societal issues, such as poverty, systemic racism, and the experience of marginalization.

Key Quote:
"I don't know if hip-hop is making it worse, or if it's just reflecting the conditions that already existed." – Chuck D (Public Enemy)

Objectification of Women in Hip-Hop

1. Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes also explores the ways in which women are often objectified in hip-hop culture. Through the portrayal of women as sexual objects in rap lyrics and music videos, the documentary highlights how female empowerment is often overshadowed by the dominance of male-driven narratives that reduce women to mere accessories or symbols of male success and power.

Key Quote:
"Hip-hop has been co-opted by a kind of hyper-sexualized masculinity...Women are being treated like props, like nothing more than a man's accessory." – Joan Morgan (author, When Chickenheads Come Home to Roost)

The Commercialization of Hip-Hop

The documentary critiques how hip-hop, originally a cultural movement rooted in resistance and self-expression, has been commodified by the music industry. The focus has shifted to selling a commercialized, mainstream version of the culture, often at the expense of its more nuanced and politically conscious origins.

Personal Reflection and Activism in Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes

1. Byron Hurt also reflects on his own relationship with hip-hop, specifically his love for the music as a teenager, and how that love has evolved over time as he grew more aware of the genre’s shortcomings. The film calls for a more conscious, socially responsible form of hip-hop that respects the genre’s roots while also challenging harmful cultural narratives.

Key Quote:
“Hip-hop’s not just about music. Hip-hop is a culture, and I’m trying to reclaim that culture, a culture that has been hijacked.” – Byron Hurt

Gender and Hip-Hop’s Impact on Young People

1. Throughout the film, Hurt addresses how young people, especially young Black men, are affected by the messages they consume in hip-hop culture. The film argues that many youth adopt the aggressive and hypersexualized values of mainstream rap music, which shapes their behavior, attitudes, and perceptions of themselves and others.

   • Key Quote:
     “I’m afraid of the impact hip-hop’s having on the youth, particularly Black boys who are growing up in this culture where violence and misogyny are normalized.” – Byron Hurt

Key Takeaways from Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes

• Hip-hop has a complex relationship with gender and masculinity, often promoting a narrow, hypermasculine ideal that impacts how men view themselves and others.

• The commercialization of hip-hop has led to a focus on profit over cultural or political messages, often perpetuating harmful stereotypes.

• Violence and misogyny are recurrent themes in hip-hop, which are often seen as a reflection of societal inequalities but also contribute to them.

• Hip-hop culture needs to evolve in a way that is more reflective of its roots in self-expression, resistance, and empowerment, particularly for marginalized groups.

• As a viewer, you’re encouraged to reflect critically on your own relationship with hip-hop, question its messages, and advocate for a more responsible and inclusive culture.

Black Manhood

• Lawson Bush reviewed the historical, sociopolitical events that addressed the question: have black males gained their manhood?

• Male studies is a fairly new specialty area in developmental studies (most date the 1970s, 80s as its beginnings) - clearly black men have been more specifically studied in the mid to late 80s and 90s 

  • Sex role development is tied to social movements: women’s movement, gay liberation, men’s movement, moral majority movement, specific to the Black man: the Black power movement & Civil rights, and the African Center movement – are addressed in Bush’s review

“How does a boy become a man?”

• Bush examines the argument that Black men have been emasculated because:

  • Slavery caused a situation where many Black men could not protect themselves or their families

  • There was a matriarchal system within Black communities caused by an absent father and “overpowering Black woman” within a patriarchal society

    • Economic oppression leads to Black men’s inability to provide for their families in a society where manhood and provider role are intimately tied

Slavery and Black Manhood, according to Lawson Bush

• Patriarchal framework

• Guided by the idea of white supremacy, anyone that threatens white domination will be destroyed 

• Slavery served to systematically eliminate control by anyone noted as an upriser or leader of dissent against the white man’s control

• Stripped of their ability to protect their women, black men were emasculated

Matriarchal system

• 4 views are highlighted in Bush’s review:

  • Absence of the black father plus the exceptionally powerful Black woman causes social problems that befall the black community and black men specifically. Black men are left weakened

  • Men cannot learn to be men because of the lack of black male role models that result from economic oppression 

  • Black feminists (Patricia Collins, bell hooks) argue that there is the myth of the black matriarch created by racist scholars to foster division in the African family

    • Rationale: there has never been a matriarchal system because women have never held social or political power in the US 

  • A view that combines several of the views noted:

    • The absence of the fathers, the belief that there are not enough appropriate role models, plus female-headed households (whether through choice or circumstance) represent a type of influence held by Black women who ultimately socialize black males

    • Argument that “women cannot teach black boys to be men” – though research has challenged this view

Economic oppression and Black Manhood

• Manhood and ability to provide economically are tied together in the US. Barriers led to Black men’s inability to be viewed as men.

With the emergence of the Black power movement around the 1960s analysts assert that there was a change in the Black man’s psyche…transformed into a virile, sexually potent, angry, economically disenfranchised Black man that due to his lack of manhood becomes hyper male and goes off - “burn baby burn”, urban riots of the 1960s

Consequences of Destructive Stereotypes

• Institutional changes in social policy 

• Stereotypes reinforce structural oppression - limited access to resources such as quality jobs, quality affordable healthcare, quality education, etc. 

• On average, Black women in the US are paid 36% less than white men and 12% less than white women 

• Justice consequences: Black women are overrepresented in the US prison system, making up 30% of the prison population while representing only 13% of the general population 

• In 2022, the imprisonment rate for Black women was 1.6 times higher than the rate for white women 

  • Sexual victimization

Agency as Part of the Solution for Racial and Gender Discrimination

• Agency: “the ability to act on and influence as opposed to being acted upon”. Change the ideological and cultural representations and the systems of oppression

• Socializing race-gender

  • Parenting

    • Identifies discrimination

    • Identifies appropriate ways to respond to discrimination

    • Analyze the psychological impact of these incidents

    • Develop positive internal definition of what it means to be gendered

    • Understand the positive contributions of Black people throughout history

    • Explore all career options - not just those limited by race, gender, and class

A Shifting Paradigm for Understanding Black Manhood

• Recent studies suggest Black males do not perceive themselves as fitting the traditional, Western paradigm of the masculine ideal or stereotypes concerning manhood - ideals describe the following themes of Black male masculinity:

  • Self-determination and accountability

  • Family

  • Pride

  • Spirituality and humanism

  • Desire to give back

  • An understanding of themselves and African culture

• A shift toward Africentric paradigm?

  • These ideals are parallel to African notions (African-centered paradigm or world view) that recognize the role flexibility or duality/interrelationship of the masculine and feminine experiences inherent in both men and women

Africentric Movement and Gender

• Maulana Karenga calls for an African-centered manhood that is more androgynous for Black men and women

  • “Shared responsibility in love and struggle”

• 7 core qualities and characteristics:

  • To be knowledgeable

  • Principled

  • Committed

  • Strong

  • Disciplined

  • Achievement oriented

  • Audacious (brave and bold)

  • Others add that it’s important to contribute educational, spiritual, and material resources to the community…outer community must be valued

"Am I a Man?: A Literature Review Engaging the Sociohistorical Dynamics of Black Manhood in the United States" by Lawson V. Bush

"Am I a Man?: A Literature Review Engaging the Sociohistorical Dynamics of Black Manhood in the United States" by Lawson V. Bush is a scholarly article that delves into the complex and evolving concepts of Black manhood in the U.S. The author reviews and synthesizes existing literature, exploring how Black men have been historically constructed, represented, and understood within American society. The paper highlights the sociohistorical context of Black masculinity and offers a critical analysis of its intersections with race, class, gender, and power dynamics.

In summary, Lawson V. Bush’s article provides an in-depth review of the sociohistorical dynamics of Black manhood in the U.S. It highlights the long-standing impact of slavery, racism, and stereotypes on the construction of Black male identity and calls for the redefinition of Black manhood in ways that empower Black men and challenge oppressive social norms. The article also advocates for a more nuanced, intersectional approach to understanding Black masculinity, one that considers the complex interplay of race, class, and gender.

Historical Construction of Black Manhood

Bush traces the historical development of Black manhood, beginning with the colonial era and extending through slavery, Reconstruction, the Civil Rights Movement, and into contemporary times. Black men were often stripped of their autonomy and subject to dehumanizing stereotypes, such as being seen as "primitive" or "brutish" during slavery. The paper shows how these historical representations have influenced the development of Black male identity over time

Stereotypes and Social Roles related to Manhood

A central theme of the article is how societal stereotypes, particularly those of aggression, criminality, and hypersexuality, have shaped perceptions of Black manhood. These stereotypes have been used to justify discrimination and violence against Black men, and the paper reviews how these ideas continue to influence public attitudes and policies, including in areas such as law enforcement and media representation.

The Impact of Slavery and Racism on Manhood

Bush discusses the enduring legacy of slavery and institutionalized racism in shaping Black masculinity. The trauma of slavery, where Black men were often denied family structures, rights, and any form of identity beyond their status as property, created a foundation for a sense of emasculation. This emasculation was compounded by post-Reconstruction racial violence, disenfranchisement, and the continued systemic inequalities of the Jim Crow era.

Resistance and Reclaiming Manhood

A significant portion of the article is dedicated to the ways in which Black men have resisted these oppressive constructions of masculinity and reclaimed their identities. Bush highlights the role of Black intellectuals, activists, and community leaders throughout history who have worked to define Black manhood on their own terms. This includes figures like W.E.B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, and Malcolm X, as well as cultural expressions in music, art, and literature that reflect Black male empowerment and pride.

Contemporary Struggles and Identity Crisis Regarding Manhood

The article explores how the legacy of racism and the continued prevalence of negative stereotypes continue to affect Black men’s sense of self-worth and identity in contemporary society. Bush identifies what he terms an "identity crisis" among Black men, where societal pressures to conform to stereotypical notions of masculinity are at odds with the complex realities of Black life. The experience of being both Black and male in a society that marginalizes both identities creates unique struggles for self-definition

Intersectionality and Manhood

Bush also addresses the concept of intersectionality, noting that Black manhood cannot be understood in isolation from other social factors such as class, sexual orientation, and regional differences. For example, Black men in different socioeconomic positions may experience manhood differently, with class and economic status influencing both their opportunities and the societal expectations placed upon them. The intersection of race and class creates particular challenges for Black men in achieving equality and social mobility.

The Role of Media and Popular Culture in Manhood

The portrayal of Black men in popular culture and media is another area of focus in Bush's review. The article discusses how Black men are often depicted in narrow, reductive ways in film, television, and music. These portrayals reinforce damaging stereotypes of Black men as violent, criminal, or hypersexual. Bush argues that media representations shape public perceptions of Black masculinity, further entrenching racial stereotypes and limiting the ways in which Black men can express their identity.

Social and Institutional Challenges for Understanding Manhood

The article also explores the ways in which Black men face challenges in institutional settings such as education, the criminal justice system, and the workplace. These challenges are not just a result of individual discrimination but are deeply embedded in societal structures. The paper examines how these institutional barriers further complicate the negotiation of Black manhood, as Black men are often caught between the pressure to conform to mainstream ideas of masculinity and the constraints imposed by systemic racism.

Conclusions of Manhood Article

• Reclaiming Black Masculinity:
  Bush concludes by emphasizing the need for a reevaluation and reclaiming of Black manhood. He stresses that Black men must continue to challenge the limiting stereotypes imposed upon them and work towards redefining their identities in ways that reflect their full humanity. Black manhood is not monolithic; it is a dynamic and evolving identity shaped by both historical legacies and contemporary realities.

• The Importance of Critical Reflection:
  The article calls for a critical, reflective approach to understanding Black manhood, urging scholars and activists to engage with the sociohistorical context in order to better address the struggles Black men face today. Bush advocates for more nuanced, diverse representations of Black masculinity, particularly in academic and cultural spaces, as a means of promoting social change.

• Calls for Social Change:
  Finally, Bush argues that understanding the sociohistorical dynamics of Black manhood is essential for creating a more equitable society. By addressing the stereotypes and systemic barriers that shape Black men's experiences, society can begin to dismantle the oppressive structures that limit opportunities and perpetuate inequality.

"Ain’t I a Woman? Perceived Gendered Racial Microaggressions Experienced by Black Women" by Jioni A. Lewis, Ruby Mendenhall, Stacy A. Harwood, and Margaret Browne Huntt

"Ain’t I a Woman? Perceived Gendered Racial Microaggressions Experienced by Black Women" by Jioni A. Lewis, Ruby Mendenhall, Stacy A. Harwood, and Margaret Browne Huntt explores the intersection of race and gender, specifically how Black women experience gendered racial microaggressions. The article seeks to understand how Black women are uniquely affected by subtle, everyday forms of discrimination that stem from both their race and gender. These microaggressions, though often unintentional or disguised as casual comments, reinforce societal stereotypes and contribute to the marginalization of Black women.

In summary, the article “Ain’t I a Woman?” explores how Black women are uniquely affected by gendered racial microaggressions that simultaneously reflect their race and gender identity. The paper examines the psychological, emotional, and social consequences of these microaggressions, underscores the need for systemic change, and advocates for intersectional approaches to both research and practical interventions aimed at reducing discrimination and empowering Black women.

Definition of Microaggressions

The authors draw on the work of psychologists like Derald Wing Sue, who defined microaggressions as brief and commonplace verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults. While microaggressions are often subtle or unconscious, they can have profound emotional, psychological, and professional consequences.

Gendered Racial Microaggressions

1. This paper focuses on gendered racial microaggressions, which are microaggressions that specifically target both the racial identity and the gender of Black women. These microaggressions are particularly harmful because they cannot be easily separated from the individuals' intersectional identities as both Black and female. The study identifies key themes of microaggressions that Black women encounter, such as:

   • The Devaluation of Black Women’s Femininity: Black women often experience comments or assumptions that question their femininity, or that suggest they are less "feminine" than women of other races. For example, being labeled as "too strong" or "too aggressive" can lead to a devaluation of their feminine qualities and often forces them into stereotypical, hypermasculine roles.

   • The “Angry Black Woman” Stereotype: Many Black women report being characterized as "angry" or "hostile," even when they are simply expressing frustration or assertiveness. This stereotype contributes to the dismissal of Black women’s voices and experiences, framing them as irrational or overly emotional.

   • Exoticization and Hypersexualization: Black women also experience objectifying comments about their physical appearance, often framed in terms of their sexualized bodies. For instance, comments about physical features (e.g., their hair, hips, or skin color) often reduce Black women to stereotypes that emphasize sexual attractiveness or exoticness

The Psychological and Emotional Impact of Gendered Racial Microaggressions

Gendered racial microaggressions often have significant psychological and emotional impacts on Black women. The authors note that these experiences can lead to feelings of alienation, frustration, anxiety, and diminished self-esteem. Repeated exposure to these microaggressions can also contribute to increased stress and negatively affect Black women’s mental health and overall well-being.

Professional and Social Consequences of Gendered Racial Microaggressions

Black women often experience microaggressions in both professional and social settings. In workplaces, for instance, they may face challenges such as being overlooked for promotions, treated with condescension, or excluded from informal networks. The intersection of racism and sexism compounds these difficulties, as Black women face both racial discrimination and gender biases. The authors discuss how these microaggressions can also affect Black women’s career progression and social relationships.

Navigating Double Jeopardy

Black women often find themselves in a position of “double jeopardy,” where they are simultaneously marginalized due to their race and gender. This dual oppression creates a unique set of challenges, as Black women navigate environments where their racial and gender identities intersect. The study underscores that Black women’s responses to microaggressions are shaped by the need to maintain their dignity and sense of self-worth while negotiating these multiple layers of discrimination.

Coping Mechanisms for Gendered Racial Microaggressions

The paper discusses how Black women develop various strategies to cope with gendered racial microaggressions. Some may engage in self-affirmation or reframing to protect their sense of identity, while others may rely on humor or other adaptive behaviors to deflect microaggressions. However, the emotional toll of constantly navigating these microaggressions can be exhausting, and many women report feeling emotionally drained by the need to constantly defend themselves or explain their actions.

Recommendations for Addressing Microaggressions

1. The authors argue for the importance of addressing gendered racial microaggressions both in research and in practical, everyday settings. They suggest several recommendations:

   • Raising Awareness: Increasing awareness of microaggressions among both individuals and institutions is crucial. Educational programs aimed at helping people recognize their biases and understand the impact of their words and actions can play an important role in reducing microaggressions.

   • Creating Supportive Environments: The authors advocate for creating supportive environments where Black women can openly discuss their experiences with microaggressions. This includes promoting mentorship programs and supportive networks that can provide both emotional and professional support.

   • Institutional Change: The study calls for systemic change in institutions, including schools and workplaces, to ensure that policies are in place to address microaggressions and that there are clear avenues for reporting discrimination. Training and awareness campaigns in these settings can help reduce the prevalence of microaggressions.

Conclusions from article on Gendered Racial Microaggressions

• Intersectionality is Key:
  The study reinforces the importance of intersectionality, a concept coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw, in understanding the lived experiences of Black women. By acknowledging how race and gender intersect, the paper shows that Black women experience a unique form of discrimination that cannot be fully understood by considering race or gender in isolation. The authors stress that an intersectional approach is crucial for both understanding the scope of microaggressions and developing effective interventions.

• Microaggressions as a Form of Structural Oppression:
  The authors argue that gendered racial microaggressions are not just individual acts of bias but are part of broader structural and societal patterns of racism and sexism. These microaggressions reflect deep-seated cultural assumptions and stereotypes that perpetuate inequality.

• The Need for Collective Action:
  Addressing gendered racial microaggressions requires collective action, including changes in societal attitudes, workplace cultures, and educational systems. The paper calls for collaboration between researchers, educators, policymakers, and advocates to address the cumulative effects of microaggressions on Black women and to work toward creating a more inclusive and supportive society.

History of studying African American religion

• Beginning in the 1950s: the number of studies focused on the role of churches in civil rights activism

• Mid 70s: there started to be a lull in research

• But in the 80s and 90s onward, there has been a resurgence of interest in this field of scholarship 

  • Studies have consisted of national surveys, community surveys, and general population surveys as sources of information

Pew Research Center, 2021 on Religion

• Nationally representative survey of 8,660 Black adults (ages 18-older)

• Respondents identify as Black or African American, including some who identify as both Black and Hispanic or Black and another race (such as Black and White, or Black and Asian)

  • Survey was complemented by small group discussions with Black adults of various ages and religious leanings, and interviews with Black clergy

Correlates of Religiosity

• African Americans are more religious 

  • Believe in God/higher power

  • More likely to go to church (only slightly higher than whites)

  • Pray

  • Read the Bible or other religious materials

  • Report their faith is important

  • Share their religious beliefs with others

  • In addition, many African Americans – especially elders, may receive material aid and psychosocial or emotional support from church elders – may request that prayers be offered on their behalf

Demographics & Religiosity

• Gender: black women report much higher levels of most forms of religiosity than black men 

• Age: generally religiosity increases monotonically – increases with age and decreases with youth

• Geographic differences: Southerners tend to report higher levels of religiosity than other African Americans living in other areas of the country

• Education and income: only modest, positive association with public religious involvement (e.g., church membership and frequency of attendance), but generally unrelated to more private, non-institutionalized expressions of religiosity

Dimensions of African American Religiosity

• Organizational (e.g., religious attendance and congregational participation)

• Non-organizational (e.g., prayer, Bible study, religious media consumption)

• Subjective religiosity (e.g., strength of personal religious identity)

Denominations: Black “Mainline” Churches

• Baptist: 49-60% of African Americans are Baptists

• Methodist 6-14%

• Catholic 5-10%

• No specific denominational affiliation 4-8% 

• Overrepresented in Jehovah’s witnesses, Baptists, Muslim, 7th Day Adventists, and Pentecostals

• Underrepresented in groups that claim no religion

Changing religion?

• Switching denomination is less frequent among African Americans

• However, some studies suggest that a growing % of African Americans are abandoning organized religion – especially younger cohorts 

• At the same time a “non trivial” proportion of persons are leaving black mainline churches are converting to smaller conservative groups (e.g., the Church of God in Christ, Jehovah’s Witnesses)

• Compared to “stayers” those that leave organized religion attend to be younger, non-southern male, and tend to be relatively isolated from family and community networks

Religion, Spirituality, and Well-being

• Positive psychosocial outcomes from religious involvement:

  • Positively related to overall life satisfaction of African Americans – especially among older, non-southern African Americans  

  • Associated with lower depression and mental distress 

  • Helps with coping and dealing with stressful problems (planning and organizing)

  • Less substance use 

  • Prayer and coping – more likely to be used by African Americans who are dealing with bereavement or health problems (their own illnesses or those of loved ones). The “positive reframing” of illness can help them realize their strengths, pull them together as family   

  • Social support 

  • Increase likelihood of longevity, health 

  • Religion, Spirituality, and Well-being – Mental Health Assistance

    • Clergy may be the first line of help for those who are experiencing mental health issues 

    • Barriers for seeking professional mental health care

Faith in the Hood (2013)

• Southeast DC, the city’s poorest region, has only one sit-down restaurant, but hundreds of churches. Faith in the Hood is a compelling portrait of the inner city, as seen through the prism of the spiritual life of its people

• The film profiles five ministries:

  • A street ministry for former convicts

  • A socially active storefront church

  • A powerful Afro-centric church

  • An evangelical camp for youth

  • And an Islamic school 

• With commentary from leading experts on African American faith, the film displays the richness of religion and its centrality as a defining aspect of black community life

Faith in the Hood is a documentary that explores the intersection of faith, community, and social justice in urban neighborhoods, particularly within Black and Latino communities. The film examines the role of religion and spirituality in providing strength, resilience, and hope amidst the challenges of poverty, violence, and systemic inequality. It highlights how churches and faith-based organizations in these communities serve as centers of support and activism, tackling issues such as crime, education, unemployment, and social isolation.

Key segments of the documentary feature personal stories of individuals who have found strength in their faith to overcome adversity. It also focuses on how faith leaders are actively involved in advocating for justice, building community empowerment, and addressing the unique needs of their neighborhoods. The documentary sheds light on how faith not only offers spiritual guidance but also serves as a tool for social change.

Faith in the Hood offers a powerful exploration of the role of faith in empowering communities and individuals facing adversity. It highlights the transformative potential of faith-based activism in urban neighborhoods and underscores the importance of religious leaders and organizations in the fight for social justice. By blending personal stories with broader social commentary, the documentary paints a picture of faith as a dynamic force for resilience, community-building, and social change.

Features of Traditional African Religions (Belgrave & Allison’s synopsis from African scholarship

• Belief in a supreme being. God who created all things and is everywhere

• God is good. Rewards for goodness, but also punishes evilness.

• Belief in divinities. They stand next to God and serve as intermediaries between God and man. They are nature spirits.

• Belief in spirit beings. Next to God and divinities. Spirits can be ghosts. 

• Belief in ancestors. Our heroes and heroines with special powers in the afterlife.

• Belief in the practice of magic and medicine. Practice, intervention, and curse through the spirits and divinities to men and healers

• The soul is immortal. One’s soul survives death and becomes a spirit.

• Little concern with the afterlife. Focus on human attainment in this world. 

• Communalism. Supports the values of social solidarity, harmony, and cooperation.

• Provides a moral code. Sanctions exist and misfortunes are earned. Good fortunes are rewards.

"African Americans’ Perceptions of Psychotherapy and Psychotherapists" by Vetta L. Sanders Thompson, Anita Bazile, and Maysa Akbar

"African Americans’ Perceptions of Psychotherapy and Psychotherapists" by Vetta L. Sanders Thompson, Anita Bazile, and Maysa Akbar explores the unique perceptions and attitudes African Americans hold toward psychotherapy and mental health professionals. The paper examines how cultural, social, and historical factors shape African Americans' willingness to seek mental health services and their trust in mental health professionals, especially in the context of systemic racism and the history of racial discrimination in the U.S.

The article by Vetta L. Sanders Thompson, Anita Bazile, and Maysa Akbar highlights how African Americans perceive psychotherapy and mental health professionals, emphasizing the cultural, historical, and social factors that shape these perceptions. The authors discuss the barriers African Americans face in seeking therapy, such as stigma, mistrust, and financial constraints, as well as the need for therapists to demonstrate cultural competence. The paper calls for increasing diversity in the mental health field, improving access to services, and creating more culturally tailored interventions to effectively meet the needs of African American clients.

Historical and Cultural Context of mistrust of psychotherapy

The article highlights the critical role that historical mistrust and experiences of racial discrimination play in shaping African Americans' attitudes toward psychotherapy. African Americans have historically been subjected to unethical medical and psychological practices, such as the exploitation and mistreatment in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and the misdiagnosis of mental health disorders. These traumatic experiences have led to a general skepticism toward mental health professionals and the healthcare system more broadly.

Stereotypes and Stigma in Mental Health Field

The paper explores the stigma surrounding mental health in the African American community, noting that seeking therapy can sometimes be viewed as a sign of weakness or a failure to manage one’s personal struggles. This stigma is compounded by cultural values such as self-reliance and the importance of maintaining a strong, resilient persona in the face of adversity. African Americans may also fear that seeking therapy will reinforce negative stereotypes about Black people being "weak" or "unstable."

Role of Trust in Psychotherapy

Trust is a significant factor in whether African Americans will seek psychotherapy. The article notes that trust in the therapist—especially regarding cultural sensitivity, competence, and understanding—is a key element. If African American clients feel that their therapist does not understand their lived experiences or cultural background, they may be less likely to engage in therapy. Therapists’ lack of cultural competence can lead to misdiagnosis or ineffective treatment.

Importance of Cultural Competence

The authors argue that one of the key factors influencing African Americans' perceptions of psychotherapy is the cultural competence of mental health professionals. African American clients tend to feel more comfortable with therapists who demonstrate an understanding of Black culture, identity, and the historical context of racial oppression. The paper emphasizes that therapists should be aware of cultural differences in communication styles, family dynamics, and community values. When therapists lack cultural awareness, it can lead to negative therapeutic experiences and a lack of rapport.

Preferences for Black Therapists

A notable theme in the paper is the preference some African Americans have for seeing Black therapists. This preference is often tied to a desire for therapists who understand the unique experiences of Black people, including racism, discrimination, and the complexities of Black identity. Black therapists are often seen as more relatable and trustworthy because they share similar lived experiences and cultural understanding. This highlights the need for increased diversity in the mental health profession to ensure that clients feel seen, heard, and understood.

Barriers to Seeking Therapy

1. The authors identify several barriers that prevent African Americans from seeking psychotherapy, including:

   • Financial barriers, such as the cost of therapy or lack of insurance coverage for mental health services.

   • Lack of access to qualified therapists, particularly in areas with few Black professionals or mental health facilities that are culturally competent.

   • Social stigma and cultural taboos around discussing personal or mental health problems.

   • Mistrust of mental health professionals, especially when therapists are perceived as being disconnected from the African American community or unfamiliar with the experiences of racial trauma.

Alternative Coping Mechanisms for Mental Health Issues

African Americans often turn to alternative coping mechanisms when dealing with mental health issues. The paper notes that many people in the African American community rely on family support, religious practices, and community networks rather than formal psychotherapy. Faith-based organizations, in particular, are seen as a source of emotional support and healing, providing an important space for African Americans to address mental health concerns in a culturally affirming environment.

Role of Religion and Spirituality in Coping with Mental Health Issues

The paper discusses the significant role that religion and spirituality play in how African Americans cope with mental health issues. Many African Americans view spirituality as a central component of their resilience and healing process. Churches and spiritual leaders are often relied upon for advice, counseling, and emotional support. This highlights the importance of integrating cultural and spiritual resources into the therapeutic process when working with African American clients.

Need for Tailored Mental Health Interventions

The authors suggest that effective mental health interventions for African Americans should be culturally tailored to address the specific concerns, values, and experiences of Black clients. This may involve incorporating discussions of race, racism, and identity into therapy, as well as creating an environment where African Americans feel safe, respected, and empowered to explore their mental health concerns.

Key Takeaways from Faith in the Hood

1. Faith as a Tool for Resilience: The documentary emphasizes that faith plays a crucial role in helping individuals cope with adversity in marginalized communities. It provides a sense of belonging, purpose, and hope for those facing systemic challenges.

2. Faith-Based Activism: Churches and religious leaders in urban areas are often at the forefront of social justice movements, advocating for better schools, safer neighborhoods, and economic opportunities. They use their platforms to challenge the status quo and work for change.

3. Community and Belonging: Faith-based organizations often serve as safe spaces where individuals can find support, connect with others, and engage in meaningful relationships that foster a sense of belonging and purpose.

4. Faith and Social Justice: The documentary illustrates that faith is not just about personal salvation but also about addressing broader societal issues. Many faith leaders view their work as integral to promoting justice and equality in their communities.

5. Challenges and Complexity: While faith can be a source of strength, the documentary also highlights the complexity of maintaining faith in the face of systemic oppression, poverty, and violence. Many individuals wrestle with reconciling their beliefs with the harsh realities of their daily lives.

Important Quotes from Faith in the Hood

1. “Faith is not just about what happens on Sundays—it’s about what happens on Mondays through Saturdays. It’s about living out your values every day, in your work, in your community, in your relationships.” —This quote encapsulates the documentary’s core message that faith extends beyond religious services and is a daily, active process of engagement with the world.

2. “When we talk about faith in the hood, we’re not just talking about spirituality, we’re talking about survival. It’s about using faith to overcome everything from systemic oppression to personal struggles.” —This quote underscores the documentary's view of faith as both a spiritual and practical tool for navigating life in marginalized communities.

3. “The church is a place where we heal, but it’s also where we fight. We fight for justice, we fight for equality, and we fight for our future.” —This quote reflects the dual role of churches in these communities: as spaces of spiritual healing and activism for social change.

4. “It’s about taking faith to the streets. It’s not enough to just pray in the church, we have to bring that prayer into the streets, into our communities, and into our lives.” —This quote highlights the documentary’s focus on how faith should be actively lived and demonstrated, not confined to church buildings.