IB Psych SL Key Studies

Lau and Russel 1980

Found that college football coaches tended to credit their wins to dispositional factors, such as good shape and ability of the team, and losses to situational factors such as bad weather

Tierny et al. 2001

Aim: Evaluate bilingual compensation following early childhood brain damage

P: used pet scans/compared MA and 12 control participants

F: MAs language abilities, located in the frontal left hemisphere, may have developed in the right hemisphere as a form of adaption after brain damage

Implications: This demonstrates the plasticity of the brain and shows that there are biological correlates to behavior

Rosenzweig and Bennett 1972

Aim: Discover the effect of an enriched environment compared to a deprived environment on the behavior of rats

P: 3 conditions: one cage is in an enriched environment , one in a deprived environment, and one adequate environment with standard conditions. Observed rats for 10 weeks and then weighed and measured their brains to determine the amount of cell growth

F:The enriched rats had a larger cerebral cortex, increase in enzyme acetylcholinesterace, greater ratio of RNA to DNA and larger neurons and synapses

Implications: stimulation from enriched environment lead to increase in neuroplasticity

**cant be generalized to humans, doesnt have ecological validity , and unethical treatment of rats

Newcomer 1999

Aim: to discover the effect of high levels of cortisol on memory

Procedure: 51 participants in 3 groups: 1 taking a high dosage, one with a low dosage and the last being the control

Findings:Test for verbal declarative memory was given before the treatment, one and four days after treatment was given and six days post treatment. only participants with high levels of cortisol experienced decreasse in verbal declarative memory

Implications: High levels of cortisol experienced over the length of a few days leads to memory impairment

*no ecological validity

Raine et al 1997

Aim: discovered whether the aggressive behavior found in NGRIs has a biological basis

Procedure: Compared to PET scans of NGRI participants to those of normal participants

Findings: NGRIs had less activity in the prefrontal cortex as well as in the amygdala and medial temporal hippocampus

Implications: aggressive behavior found in NGRIs has a direct correlation with damage of the amygdala and medial temporal hippocampus (areas associated with emotion and self control)

Limitations: PET scans can be over-interpreted/ correlational research and no cause-effect relationship can be established

Craik and Tulvig 1975

Aim: Test the LOP theory

Procedure: Participants learnt a list of words along with questions involving one of three levels of processing

Findings: Semantic words were recalled more easily than the other two

Implications: deeper processing of the words led to better recall since words associated with deepest level of processing were easiest to recall

Bransford and Johnson 1972

Aim: Attempted to identify the processing stage at which schemas are likely to exert their influence

Procedure: participants listen to a long speech under 3 conditions: title before, title after, and no title. Then they were asked to recall as much information from the speech as they remembered

Findings: no title and title after conditions found less recalled and found it more difficult to comprehend the speech

Implications: shematic knowledge helped understand and recall the speech; perceiving the passage within context with relevant schemas made it easier to understand

Bouchard et al 1990

Aim: to determine how much of intelligence is determined by genetics

Procedure: studied IQ levels of 71 twins separated from birth

Findings: correlation of about 0.69 found in IQ levels

Implications: concluded that intelligence is about 70% influenced by genetics and 30% influenced by the environment, since twins raised apart still had a high concordance ratio

**research supported findings

Brown and Kulik 1977

Aim: investigate whether dramatic or personally significant events can cause "flashbulb" memories

Procedure: asked 40 white and 40 black Americans whether they recalled vivid memories of hearing of major events (JFK or 9/11)They tested their hypothesis by comparing consequential events against consequential events

Findings: FB memory is more likely to be remembered for unexpected or shocking event , also personally relevant events

**Events that we place under dramatic or influential cause us stronger held memory of the event

Bartlett 1932

Aim: discover how cultural factors influence schemas which can lead to distorted memories

Procedure: Participants asked to read Native American story "war of the ghosts" and recall it by rewriting as much as they remembered, next participant reads the recounted story and does the same

Findings: # of reproductions increased, story became shorter and there were more changes; culturally unfamiliar things altered

Martinez and Kesner 1991

Aim: to discover the relationship between ach levels in the brain and memory

Procedure: 3 groups of rats: one group with increased levels, one with decreased and one control group. Rats put into a maze and observed

Findings: groups with higher levels of ach ran through the maze faster and made less errors than the other two groups

**ach linked to memory

Maguire et al 2000

Aim: to investigate whether there is a difference in brain structure between London taxi drivers that are constantly in a stimulating environment and those who are not exposed to this environment

Procedure: Compared the MRI scans of 16 male taxi drivers to those of 51 male non-taxi drivers

Findings: Taxi drivers had greater grey matter volume in posterior hippocampi than non-taxi drivers

Implications: Stimulating environment that taxi drivers are in leads to increased brain plasticity (bigger hippocampus)

Steele et al 1995

Procedure/Findings: Black college freshmen and sophomores performed more poorly in standardized tests than white students when their race was emphasized; when not emphasized, black students performed better and equivalently with white students

Implications: shows that performance in academic contexts can be harmed by the awareness that one's behavior might be viewed through the lens of racial stereotypes

Shields 1962

Procedure: obtained 44 pairs of MZTs (twins) reared apart via the media

Findings: Twins reared apart had a similar correlation in IQ--> similar to that of MZTs reared together

Implications: This study supports that genetic factors have a larger influence on behavior than environmental factors as the MZTs reared apart had a higher similarity in IQ compared to DZTs reared together

Schacter and Singer 1962

Aim: to illustrate 2 factory theory of emotion

Procedure: divided college males into 3 groups that were told they were getting a shot of adrenaline, one was given a placebo: one group was informed of real effects, one given no info and one given false info. Broken into 2 subgroups- anger and euphoria and tested to see how the increased adrenaline effects their emotional response to a person displaying these qualities.

Findings: Participants given no/false info changed their behavior according to cognitive appraisal of their emotions rather than specific psychological arousal

Implications: Emotion occurs with interpretation of physiological cues or cognitive labeling.

Milner et al 1960 (H.M.)

HM suffered from epileptic seizures from the age of 10, drugs didnt work

Aim: To discover affect of removal of hippocampus from the brain on memory

Procedure: Used MRI in1997 and performed various experiments

Findings: suffered from anterograde amnesia-could not retain new information; still possessed implicit memories but not explicit memories

Tajfel 1970 (Klee v. Klendinsky)

Aim: To discover if individuals randomly assigned to groups would demonstrate social comparison

Procedure: Lab experiments involving 48 male high school students; assigned randomly into their groups based on their supposed preference for art of Kandinsky or Klee. Asked to either reward or penalize the other participants whilst informed of who is in which group

Findings: Boys were more likely to identify with the boys in their group, and were willing to give higher awards to members of their own group. Out-group was rated as less likeable but never actually disliked

Implications: boys demonstrated social comparison once they were categorized into in and out groups

Johnson et al 1964

Aim: to investigate the effect of students learning on teachers SSB

Procedure:Participants were psychology students; taught 2 children (A and B) how to multiply numbers by 10 and 20. They then filled out 2 worksheets; pupil A gave all correct answers on both sheets, pupil B either did poorly on both or poorly on one and improved on the other

Findings: Participants attributed Bs improvement to their teaching ability and attributed their failure to their lack of ability

Implications: when attributing the student's learning, teachers demonstrated SSB to enhance their self esteem

Lee et al 1977 aka Lee and Ross

Aim: to see if students would make FAE

Procedure: Participants to randomly assigned to 3 roles: game show host, contestant, and audience members. Observers asked to rank participants on intelligence

Findings: continually ranked the game show host as most intelligent, despite having known that the selection was random

Implications: overestimated dispositional factors and ignored situational factors

Kasamatsu & Hirai - Monk Serotonin Study (Serotonin)

A] Investigate how sensory deprivation affects the brain.

[P]

Studied a group of Monks on a 72 hour pilgrimage to a mountain.

The Monks were not allowed to speak, eat or drink.

They were exposed to cold late autumn weather.

After 48 hours, the Monks started seeing hallucinations of ancestors and feeling their presence.

[F]

Researchers took blood samples before and after their pilgrimage.

The found increased level of serotonin in the Monks' brain.

Especially in the Hypothalamus and Frontal Cortex.

Resulting in hallucination.

[C]

Sensory deprivation triggered the release of Serotonin.

Serotonin - responsible for Sleep, Arousal level, and Emotions.

Rosenthal - Melatonin study

In countries where there are low levels of sunlight, people have higher level of Melatonin.

This causes Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), symptoms include depression.

Tali Sharot - 9/11 Flashbulb Memory (Flashbulb Memory)

[A] Investigate upon the existence of Flashbulb Memory.

[P]

24 witnesses of the 9/11 incident were found from different location of Manhattan as subjects.

Subjects were placed in an fMRI machine.

Subjects were asked to recall the event of 9/11.

Subjects were also asked to recall their summer holiday (for control purpose).

[F]

People closer to where the event happened (where the World Trade Center was) had a more in-depth recall of the event.

When compared to subject's summer holiday, the level of detail given for 9/11 incident was higher.

Parahippocampal Gyrus (Para-hippo-campal Gy-rus - responsible for LTM retrieval) was relatively inactive when recalling memories from 9/11 when compared to recalling events from summer holiday.

Amygdala (responsible for processing memory of emotional reaction) was relatively more active when recalling memories from 9/11.

LeDoux - Fear in rats experiment (Biological factors in emotion)

[A] Investigate the role of the amygdala.

[P]

Rats were conditioned to feel fear when they hear the sound of a bell.

Assumption that the brian has made a connection between the bell and fear.

LeDoux lesioned the rats to find out which part of the brain made the connection between the bell and fear.

[F]

After several lesions, they removed the Auditory Thalamus.

The rats did not show respond to the bell with fear anymore.

In further studies, they found out that lesions on one site of the amygdala was able to stop blood pressure from rising.

[C]

This shows that there are biological interactions with emotions.

[E]

Unethical study

Induced feat in subjects, caused mental harm.

Performed lesioning on subjects, cause physical harm.

Subjects did not have rights to withdraw.

Anderson & Pichert - (Reconstructive memory)

[A] Investigate if schema processing influences both encoding and retrieval.

[P]

Participants listened to a story about a house that was left empty on thursdays.

There were 72 points in this story related to either a House-buyer or a Burglar schema.

These include leaky roofs, damp basements and colour TV, rare coin collection etc.

Half the participants were asked to read the story from a House-buyer point of view.

The other half were asked to read it from a Burglar point of view.

They then performed a distracting task for 12 minutes before recalling the story.

Then there was another 5 minutes of delay before they recalled the story again.

This time half of the participants were asked to recall the story in the other character's point of view.

(e.g. Burglar changes to House-buyer, vise versa)

[F]

Participants in changed schema group recalled 7% more points than first recall.

Recall points that were directly linked to new schema increased by 10%.

Recall points linked to previous schema dropped.

Participants that did not change schema groups recalled less than the first trial.

People encode information which was irrelevant to their prevailing schema

Spiesman et al. - Audio track interfering with emotion

[A] Prove the Theory of Appraisal can interfere with emotion.

[P]

Participants were shown a documentary of an unpleasant traditional ritual.

There were three groups of participants.

Group 1: Trauma group

They were shown the documentary with a soundtrack that emphasized the pain.

Group 2: Denial group

They were shown the documentary with a soundtrack which suggested that the ritual was joyful and happy.

Group 3: Intellectualisation group

They were shown the documentary with a soundtrack that gave an anthropological interpretation of the ritual.

[F]

Participants reacted more emotionally in the Trauma group when compared with the other two.

Because they evaluated the situation (painful soundtrack).

Thought it was appropriate to display negative emotions because situation showed potential harm.

[C]

Shows that through appraising the situation, different emotions can be displayed with the same stimuli.

Hence showing the Theory of Appraisal (cognition) can interfere with emotion.

Solomon Asch - Asch's Paradigm Experiment (Conformity)

[A] Investigate the existence of conformity.

[P]

Subject was placed into a room with 6 confederates and the experimenter.

Subject was deceived that the 6 confederates were participants just like them.

The subject was placed on the second last seat so they will be the second last to give an answer.

The group of subject and confederates were asked to select the line on the second card that matched the line on the first card.

There were 18 sets of cards in total, some of which had lines that were completely different in length, others are similar in length.

Confederates were instructed to answer correctly on some of the cards but answer incorrectly for most.

[F]

75% conformed at least once to the wrong answer

32% conformed to more than half of the wrong answers

24% did not conform at all

Cialdini et al. - Football game observation (SIT)

[A] Demonstrate social comparison with college football supporters.

[P]

Observed what college students wear to school the next day after their football game.

[F]

Students wore apparel with the representative colour of their school the day after the football game if the school won.

[C]

Result of positive self-concept results in a bias intergroup comparison.

Having a positive representation of your social group (Positive distinctiveness).

Albert Bandura - Bobo Doll Experiment (SLT)

[A] To demonstrate that learning can occur through observation of role models.

[P]

36 boys and 36 girls from age 3 to 6 were divided into groups according to their aggression evaluation from their parents and teachers.

Group 1 was exposed to adult models who showed aggression by beating up a Bobo Doll. Models were of both genders.

Group 2 observed an adult model who displayed no aggression. Models were of both genders.

Group 3 was a controlled group who did not see any model. (Control)

The children were then placed into the room with a Bobo doll after 10 minutes of watching the model.

[F]

Children who observed the aggressive model showed significantly more aggression both physically and verbally.

Boys were more likely to imitate physical aggression.

Girls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression.

[C]

Social learning theory was demonstrated in the study because the children showed signs of observational learning.

Leon Festinger - When Prophecy Fails (Self Fulfilling Prophecy)

[A] Investigate the existence of Self Fulfilling Prophecy.

[P]

Experimenters found a group of superstitious people in Chicago believing that the world would end on December 21st.

They became part of the group to observe their behaviour when the world didn't actually come to an end.

Experimenters needed to be part of the group because the group isolated themselves from all non-believers.

[F]

The group of people explained to themselves that God did not destroy the world because of their prayers.

Caused cognitive dissonance (discomfort caused by conflicting cognitions i.e. ideas, beliefs).

This is to protect there own group self esteem.

[C]

Self Fulfilling Prophecy was apparent as the believers made up a reason when their believe did not come true.

Stanley Milgram - Study On Obedience (Compliance)

[A] Investigating the effect of authority on compliance and obedience.

[P]

Subjects were 40 males, age range from 20 to 50, found through newspaper advert.

Subjects were led to believe that the experiment was investigating the effect of punishment on learning.

They were given the role of the "teacher" through a fixed lottery.

They saw the learner (which is an actor) in real life, strapped to a chair connected with an electrode.

The experimenter took the subject to another room and told them to apply an electric shock by pressing the button whenever the learner gets a question wrong.

The experimenter wore a grey lab coat.

The "teacher" was given a test shock of 45 volts.

At certain voltages, different vocal feedback was given through a recorded system. After 315 volts, no response was given.

[F]

65% of the subjects continued on to the maximum 450 volts.

No one stopped before 300 volts.

Subjects were observed to show signs of stress (e.g. sweat, tremble, biting their lips).

Spencer et al. - Stereotype threat Maths experiment (Stereotype)

[A] To demonstrate the effect of stereotype threat.

[P]

Participants were a group of male and female students.

Gave difficult maths test to students who were strong in mathematics.

Predicts that female under the stereotype threat would underperform.

This stereotype threat stems from a common negative stereotype amongst society that women are less capable in maths.

[F]

Hypothesis was true, women in the experiment significantly underperformed compared to men with equal abilities.

A literature test was also done. The two groups performed equally well because neither groups were put under stereotype threat

Cialdini - Juvenile day trip/social worker (Compliance - Reciprocity)

[A] Investigate the effect of compliance (reciprocity) on behaviour.

[P]

[F]

Experimenters pretended they were from a "County Youth Counseling Programme".

They stopped at different university campuses recruiting students to look after a group of juvenile on their day trip.

83% refused this job.

On another day, the experimenters asked if the students would be willing to be part of a counseling programme for two hours a week for two years.

Everyone refused the job.

Then, the experimenter asked them to look after a group of juvenile on their day trip.

50% agreed.

Mead - New Guinea Anthropological study

[A] Comparing masculine and feminine traits in different cultures in New Guinea.

[P]

Covert observation.

Research was done in three different tribes in New Guinea.

[F]

One tribe shows that both male and female displayed the same sensitive behaviour.

Another tribe shows that both male and female were aggressive and ruthless.

Another tribe shows that female had the dominant characteristics and male showed more "feminine" traits.

[C]

Mead's demonstration of cultural differences in many respects a valid indication of how society scan influence gender-role development.