Psychology Chapter 4, 5, & 7 Terms

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

focused awareness

a state of heightened alertness in which one is fully absorbed in the task at hand

drifting consciousness

the mind drifts or wanders from the task at hand

daydreaming

a form of consciousness during a waking state in which one's mind wanders to dreamy thoughts or fantasies

divided consciousness

a state of awareness characterized by divided attention to two or more tasks or activities performed at the same time

inattentional blindness

a failure to notice something because your attention is focused elsewhere

circadian rhythm

regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle (ex: sleep wake cycle, hormonal secretions, blood pressure)

jet lag

a disruption of circadian rhythms due to crossing time zones

electrocencephalograph (EEG)

device used to study and monitor the body at sleep; tracks brain waves, which vary in amplitude and frequency

beta waves

brainwaves detected by an EEG that represent a state of fully alert wakefulness; fast, low amplitude

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

stage 1 sleep

stage of sleep described by small, irregular brain waves; easily awakened

stage 2 sleep

a sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of "sleep spindles."

stage 3 + 4 sleep

deepest sleep; slow wave sleep, delta waves (low-frequency)

rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream (active/paradoxical sleep)

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

activation-synthesis hypothesis

explanation that states that dreams are created by the cerebral cortex to explain the activation of random neural activity during REM sleep periods

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

narcolepsy

uncontrollable sleep attacks during the day, preceded by hallucinations involving several senses

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

nightmare disorder

a sleep disorder involving a pattern of frequent, disturbing nightmares

sleepwalking disorder

a sleep disorder characterized by repeated episodes of sleepwalking during deep, dreamless sleep

meditation

a process of focused attention that includes relaxed, contemplative state (2 types)

transcendental meditation

practitioners focus their attention by repeating a sound or phrase (mantra)

mindfulness meditation

practitioners focus entirely on being aware of what they are seeing and feeling in the moment

hypnosis

an altered state of consciousness characterized by focused attention, deep relaxation, and heightened susceptibility to suggestion

posthypnotic amnesia

the failure to retrieve memories following hypnotic suggestions to forget

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion made during hypnosis that influences the participant's behavior afterward

neodissociation theory

a theory of hypnosis based on the belief that hypnosis represents a state of dissociated (divided) consciousness.

psychoactive drugs

drugs that act on the brain to affect emotional or mental states; affect mood, thought processes, perceptions, and behvaior

polyabusers

people who abuse more than one drug at a time

drug dependence

a severe drug-related problem characterized by impaired control over the use of the drug

physiological dependence

a state of physical dependence on a drug caused by repeated usage that changes body chemistry

withdrawl syndrome

symptoms that result when a patient stops taking a substance they were physiologically dependent on

tolerance

the need to increase the amount of a drug so that it has the same effect

drug addiction

drug dependence accompanied by signs of physiological dependence, such as the development of a withdrawal syndrome

psychological dependence

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions or anxiety

depressants

drugs that reduce central nervous system activity, which in turn slows down heart rate and respiratory rate

intoxicant

a chemical substance that induces a state of drunkenness

alcoholism

a form of chemical dependence characterized by impaired control over the use of alcohol

stimulants

drugs that activate the central nervous system, such as amphetamines and cocaine

hallucinogens

drugs that alter sensory perceptions, producing hallucinations or distortions in visual, auditory, or other sensory forms

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

classical conditioning

the process of learning by which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response identical or similar to one that was originally elicited by another stimulus as the result of the pairing or association of the two stimuli

unconditioned response (UR)

unlearned response to a stimulus

unconditioned stimulus (US)

a stimulus that elicits a response without any prior learning

neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that before conditioning does not produce a particular response

conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a conditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus

extinction

the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency

spontaneous recovery

the spontaneous reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred

reconditioning

the relearning of a conditioned response following extinction

stimulus generalization

the tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

the tendency to differentiate among stimuli so that stimuli that are related to the original conditioned stimulus, but not identical to it, fail to elicit a conditioned response

conditioned emotional response (CER)

an emotional response to a particular stimulus acquired through classical conditioning

phobias

irrational fears of specific objects or situations

behavior therapy

a form of therapy that involves the systematic application of the principles of learning (used to help people overcome phobias)

conditioned taste aversion

an aversion to a particular food or beverage acquired through classical conditioning

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

a behavior followed by a reward is is strengthened and more likely repeated

operant conditioning

the process of learning in which the consequences of a response determine the probability that the response will be repeated

Skinner box

a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled

operant response

a response that operates on the environment to produce certain consequences

reinforcer

a stimulus or event that increases the probability that the response it follows will be repeated

positive reinforcement

the strengthening of a response through the introduction of a stimulus after the response occurs

negative reinforcement

the strengthening of a response through the removal of a stimulus after the response occurs

primary reinforcers

reinforcers, such as food or water, that are naturally rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives

secondary reinforcers

learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers

discriminative stimulus

a cue that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response

shaping

a process of learning that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response

schedules of reinforcement

predetermined plans for timing the delivery of reinforcement

schedule of continuous reinforcement

a system of dispensing a reinforcement each time a response is produced

schedule of partial reinforcement

a system of reinforcement in which only a portion of responses is reinforced

punishment

the introduction of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a reinforcing stimulus after a response occurs, which leads to the weakening or suppression of the response

insight learning

the process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs

latent learning

learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

observational learning

learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others

cognitive psychology

the branch of psychology that focuses on such mental processes as thinking, problem solving, decision making, and language

thinking

the process of mentally representing and manipulating information

mental images

help us perform various cognitive functions, such as remembering directions and seeking creative solutions to problems

concepts

mental categories for classifying events, objects, and ideas on the basis of their common features or properties

logical concepts

concepts with clearly defined rules for membership

natural concepts

concepts with poorly defined or fuzzy rules for membership

problem solving

a form of thinking focused on finding a solution to a particular problem

algorithm

a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem

heuristic

a rule of thumb for solving problems or making judgments or decisions

representative heuristic

a rule of thumb for making a judgement that assumes a given sample is representative of the larger population

availability heuristic

the tendency to judge events as more likely to occur when information pertaining to them comes readily to mind

decision making

a form of problem solving in which we must select a course of action from among the available alternatives

confirmation bias

the tendency to stick with an initial hypothesis despite strong evidence to the contrary

binge drinking

having 4/5 or more drinks on one occasion, damage to corpus collosum

nicotine

mild stimulant, highly addictive, in most e-ciggarettes and vapes

hypnotic age regression

a hypnotically induced experience that involves reexperiencing past events in one's life

language

a system of communication consisting of symbols arranged according to a set of rules to express meaning

grammar

a set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages

phonemes

the basic units of sound in language

morphemes

the smallest units of meaning in a language, composed of one or more phonemes

syntax

the rules of grammar that determine how words are ordered within sentences and phrases to form meaningful expressions

semantics

the set of rules governing the meaning of words

language acquisition device

Chomsky's concept of an innate, prewired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire language naturally