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consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
focused awareness
a state of heightened alertness in which one is fully absorbed in the task at hand
drifting consciousness
the mind drifts or wanders from the task at hand
daydreaming
a form of consciousness during a waking state in which one's mind wanders to dreamy thoughts or fantasies
divided consciousness
a state of awareness characterized by divided attention to two or more tasks or activities performed at the same time
inattentional blindness
a failure to notice something because your attention is focused elsewhere
circadian rhythm
regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle (ex: sleep wake cycle, hormonal secretions, blood pressure)
jet lag
a disruption of circadian rhythms due to crossing time zones
electrocencephalograph (EEG)
device used to study and monitor the body at sleep; tracks brain waves, which vary in amplitude and frequency
beta waves
brainwaves detected by an EEG that represent a state of fully alert wakefulness; fast, low amplitude
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
stage 1 sleep
stage of sleep described by small, irregular brain waves; easily awakened
stage 2 sleep
a sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of "sleep spindles."
stage 3 + 4 sleep
deepest sleep; slow wave sleep, delta waves (low-frequency)
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream (active/paradoxical sleep)
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
activation-synthesis hypothesis
explanation that states that dreams are created by the cerebral cortex to explain the activation of random neural activity during REM sleep periods
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
narcolepsy
uncontrollable sleep attacks during the day, preceded by hallucinations involving several senses
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
nightmare disorder
a sleep disorder involving a pattern of frequent, disturbing nightmares
sleepwalking disorder
a sleep disorder characterized by repeated episodes of sleepwalking during deep, dreamless sleep
meditation
a process of focused attention that includes relaxed, contemplative state (2 types)
transcendental meditation
practitioners focus their attention by repeating a sound or phrase (mantra)
mindfulness meditation
practitioners focus entirely on being aware of what they are seeing and feeling in the moment
hypnosis
an altered state of consciousness characterized by focused attention, deep relaxation, and heightened susceptibility to suggestion
posthypnotic amnesia
the failure to retrieve memories following hypnotic suggestions to forget
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion made during hypnosis that influences the participant's behavior afterward
neodissociation theory
a theory of hypnosis based on the belief that hypnosis represents a state of dissociated (divided) consciousness.
psychoactive drugs
drugs that act on the brain to affect emotional or mental states; affect mood, thought processes, perceptions, and behvaior
polyabusers
people who abuse more than one drug at a time
drug dependence
a severe drug-related problem characterized by impaired control over the use of the drug
physiological dependence
a state of physical dependence on a drug caused by repeated usage that changes body chemistry
withdrawl syndrome
symptoms that result when a patient stops taking a substance they were physiologically dependent on
tolerance
the need to increase the amount of a drug so that it has the same effect
drug addiction
drug dependence accompanied by signs of physiological dependence, such as the development of a withdrawal syndrome
psychological dependence
a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions or anxiety
depressants
drugs that reduce central nervous system activity, which in turn slows down heart rate and respiratory rate
intoxicant
a chemical substance that induces a state of drunkenness
alcoholism
a form of chemical dependence characterized by impaired control over the use of alcohol
stimulants
drugs that activate the central nervous system, such as amphetamines and cocaine
hallucinogens
drugs that alter sensory perceptions, producing hallucinations or distortions in visual, auditory, or other sensory forms
learning
the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
classical conditioning
the process of learning by which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response identical or similar to one that was originally elicited by another stimulus as the result of the pairing or association of the two stimuli
unconditioned response (UR)
unlearned response to a stimulus
unconditioned stimulus (US)
a stimulus that elicits a response without any prior learning
neutral stimulus (NS)
a stimulus that before conditioning does not produce a particular response
conditioned response (CR)
a learned response to a conditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS)
a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus
extinction
the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency
spontaneous recovery
the spontaneous reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred
reconditioning
the relearning of a conditioned response following extinction
stimulus generalization
the tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response
stimulus discrimination
the tendency to differentiate among stimuli so that stimuli that are related to the original conditioned stimulus, but not identical to it, fail to elicit a conditioned response
conditioned emotional response (CER)
an emotional response to a particular stimulus acquired through classical conditioning
phobias
irrational fears of specific objects or situations
behavior therapy
a form of therapy that involves the systematic application of the principles of learning (used to help people overcome phobias)
conditioned taste aversion
an aversion to a particular food or beverage acquired through classical conditioning
Law of Effect (Thorndike)
a behavior followed by a reward is is strengthened and more likely repeated
operant conditioning
the process of learning in which the consequences of a response determine the probability that the response will be repeated
Skinner box
a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled
operant response
a response that operates on the environment to produce certain consequences
reinforcer
a stimulus or event that increases the probability that the response it follows will be repeated
positive reinforcement
the strengthening of a response through the introduction of a stimulus after the response occurs
negative reinforcement
the strengthening of a response through the removal of a stimulus after the response occurs
primary reinforcers
reinforcers, such as food or water, that are naturally rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives
secondary reinforcers
learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers
discriminative stimulus
a cue that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response
shaping
a process of learning that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response
schedules of reinforcement
predetermined plans for timing the delivery of reinforcement
schedule of continuous reinforcement
a system of dispensing a reinforcement each time a response is produced
schedule of partial reinforcement
a system of reinforcement in which only a portion of responses is reinforced
punishment
the introduction of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a reinforcing stimulus after a response occurs, which leads to the weakening or suppression of the response
insight learning
the process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs
latent learning
learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
observational learning
learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others
cognitive psychology
the branch of psychology that focuses on such mental processes as thinking, problem solving, decision making, and language
thinking
the process of mentally representing and manipulating information
mental images
help us perform various cognitive functions, such as remembering directions and seeking creative solutions to problems
concepts
mental categories for classifying events, objects, and ideas on the basis of their common features or properties
logical concepts
concepts with clearly defined rules for membership
natural concepts
concepts with poorly defined or fuzzy rules for membership
problem solving
a form of thinking focused on finding a solution to a particular problem
algorithm
a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem
heuristic
a rule of thumb for solving problems or making judgments or decisions
representative heuristic
a rule of thumb for making a judgement that assumes a given sample is representative of the larger population
availability heuristic
the tendency to judge events as more likely to occur when information pertaining to them comes readily to mind
decision making
a form of problem solving in which we must select a course of action from among the available alternatives
confirmation bias
the tendency to stick with an initial hypothesis despite strong evidence to the contrary
binge drinking
having 4/5 or more drinks on one occasion, damage to corpus collosum
nicotine
mild stimulant, highly addictive, in most e-ciggarettes and vapes
hypnotic age regression
a hypnotically induced experience that involves reexperiencing past events in one's life
language
a system of communication consisting of symbols arranged according to a set of rules to express meaning
grammar
a set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages
phonemes
the basic units of sound in language
morphemes
the smallest units of meaning in a language, composed of one or more phonemes
syntax
the rules of grammar that determine how words are ordered within sentences and phrases to form meaningful expressions
semantics
the set of rules governing the meaning of words
language acquisition device
Chomsky's concept of an innate, prewired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire language naturally
