Year 12 ATAR Psychology: Applications of Psychology to Health

Stress as defined by Selye

A non-specific (experienced differently by others) response to internal or external stressors. It is a physical response of the body to physical / psychological demands. It is heavily subjective.

Distress (Selye)

A negative psychological response to a stressor percieved to be a threat, as indicated by the presence of negative psychological states such as anger or irritability whilst disrupting our ability to function. Prolonged distress has major impacts on physical / mental health.

Eustress (Selye)

A positive psychological state felt due to stressors, leading to positive feelings such as excitement / motivation. Linked to opportunities for personal growth, such as a new job / marriage, etc.

Stressors (Seyle)

An external or internal experience which produces a non-specific psychological response. Whether the stressor produces distress or eustress depends on personal context of the individual and their interpretation of the stressor.

Internal Stressor + Example (Seyle)

Originate from within the individual - personal mental issues or our interpretation of physical pain. Feeling threatened by someone based off of our own prejudice is an internal stressor as it is based on our own emotions and interpretations.

External Stressor (Seyle)

Originate from outside the individual - from situations and events in the environment. Environment, social, and cultural stressors are external. Being explicitly threatened by someone is an external stressor as it is an event originating from factors outside our own mind or body.

Psychological Stressors (Seyle)

Internal factors (thoughts, feelings, behaviours) that can influence our experience of stress. Can include worry, anxiety, or pessimism.

Environmental Stressors (Seyle)

Stimuli originating externally from the environment which influence stress. Can include noise, bright light, or natural disasters.

Social Stressors (Selye)

Behaviours and situations relating to the actions of other individuals that cause physical / psychological strain. Could involve arguing with a loved one, being threatened, or an important relationship ending.

Cultural Stressor (Selye)

Stress originating from encountering someone with a differing culture / lifestyle. Could involve challenging of personal morals. Examples include being left out of a group with differing values, being discriminated against, or adjusting to a new culture.

Characteristics of the Stressor: Nature

The nature of a particular stressor refers to the ability of an iindividual to control or influence the situation. Certain stressors may be more difficult to control by nature.

Nature of Stressor: Importance

Stressors relating to important aspects of an individuals life tend to cause higher levels of stress. The death of a loved one or the diagnosis of a fatal disease are incredibly important and could lead to higher stress.

Nature of Stressor: Predictability

Events that are unpredictable, unanticipated, or uncontrollable will lead to higher levels of stress stemming from feelings of helplessness and frustration.

A natural disaster cannot be anticipated and therefore will lead to higher stress, whereas a test you have known about for a few months will lead to lower stress.

Nature of Stressor: Number of Stressors

Encountering multiple stressors simultaneously can compound the effects of the individual stressor and lead to feelings of being overwhelmed. It is harder to deal with individual stressors when there are a large number to focus on.

Characteristics of Stressors: Duration

The length of time a stressor persists in an individuals life.

Duration of Stressors: Acute Stressors

Short-term stressors which can be handled relatively quickly. They activate immediate responses to stress and usually produce less overall stress.

Duration of Stressors: Chronic Stressors

Long-term stressors existing in the form of ongoing demands, pressures, or worries. These can have cumulative impacts on an individual, impacting various aspects of life including physical / mental health, social relationships, etc.

Characteristics of Stressors: Strength

The magnitude / intensity of a stressor, and the impact it has on an individual. Strength can be influenced by the personal characteristics of the individual and their own values.

General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye)

The typical response pattern of the body, according to Selye, in reference to resistance to stress over time. The GAS model is used to describe the physiological and psychological changes the body goes through when experiencing any form of stressor.

GAS Model: Alarm Stage

The initial response to a stressor, found in the form of a general defensive reaction. It is split into two substages: shock and counter shock.

GAS Model: Alarm Stage - Shock

The shock stage takes place during or after the stressor. Resistance to stress drops below normal levels and the body acts as if injured.

The physical effects of shock also decrease our physical capacity for dealing with stress, with blood temp / pressure dropping, loss of muscle tone, and the release of adrenaline into the blood stream.

GAS Model: Alarm - Counter Shock

The sympathetic nervous system is activated and the capacity of the individual to deal with stress begins to increase in preparation for the resistance stage.

GAS Model: Resistance (No Stressor)

If the stressor is no longer present or if it is overcome the parasympathetic nervous system is engaged to return the body to natural states of homeostasis

GAS Model: Resistance (Coping with Stressor)

When the stressor remains after alarm stage, the body will not receive a signal to return to regular functioning and will attempt to adapt to this stress. Psychological arousal increases drastically and the body pushes itself to meet an equilibrium. The immune system is suppressed, leaving the body more susceptible to wear and tear.

GAS Model: Exhaustion

Occurs when the stressor is severe and applied for a significant amount of time, with the body being unable to adapt + return to normal levels. The body’s physical, emotional, and mental recourses completely deplete and there is no longer any capacity to cope with stress.

Social Readjustment Scale: Theorists and Date

Holmes and Rahe, 1967

Social Readjustment Scale: Definition

A self-report measure that measures the amount of stress experienced by an individual and their likelihood of developing a stress-related disease.

Social Readjustment Scale: Life-Changing Units (LCUs)

Represents the total stress score associated with life events. They differ according to life experiences and expected stress levels.

Social Readjustment Scale: Scale Values and Meaning

• <150: Relatively low amount of change and a low susceptibility to stress-induced health issues

• 150-300: Around a 50% chance of health issues within the next 2 years

• 300: 80% chance of health issues within the next 2 years

Social Readjustment Scale: 2 Strengths

• Research on the scale consistently demonstrates an association with stress levels from the scale and physical illnesses, showing the study has high validity

• The study had a massive sample size of 5,000 people, meaning the scale has heightened reliability

Social Readjustment Scale: 2 Limitations

• The study does not account for individual differences - some items may be considered ambiguous or not representative of how much stress it would generate for the individual

• Despite its large sample size, it’s generalisability has been questioned because the sample was constructed of a predominantly Western audience - some things may be considered stressful in other cultures that aren’t in Western ones

Social Readjustment Scale: Application

Other major studies have employed the SRS to assess the relationship between stress and specific scenarios.

In one case it was used to assess the relationship between stress and suicide attempts, and another used it to test the relationship between stress and binge eating.

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Theorists and Date

Lazarus and Folkmann, 1984

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Transaction and Appraisal

The Transaction: an encounter between the individual and their environment

Appraisal: The individual’s subjective evaluation of the relevance of the stressor to their wellbeing, as well as their ability to cope with it - the stress response depends on this

Factors that influence our response to stress:

• Our prior experience with the stressor

• Our individual motivation

• Self-esteem

• Perception of control over the situation

• Our overall life satisfaction

Transactional Model of Stress: Primary Apprailsal Model (Decompiled)

Stressor → Apprailsal (“Do I have to deal with this? What is at stake? Could this potentially benefit me?”) → Either irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful → stressful into harm / loss, threat, or challenge → all three into secondary appraisal

Transactional Model of Stress: Secondary Appraisal

Primary appraisal model → Secondary appraisal (“What can be done about it? How can I personally deal with this? What / who can I use to help me?”) → if coping recourses are adequate, reduced stress / if coping recourses are inadequate, stress occurs

Types of Stress According to Lazarus: Harm

When something bad has already happened, like a significant loss.

Types of Stress According to Lazarus: Threat

The expectation that something bad is going to happen soon.

Types of Stress According to Lazarus: Challenge

When one feels they can handle the current situation / stressor - similar to eustress

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Adaptive Coping

Positive methods of dealing with stress which empower you to change or amend a stressful situation or adjust your emotional response to it.

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Maladaptive Coping

Negative ways of dealing with stress. These methods may temporarily distract you from your source of stress but the source of stress is not actually dealt with, leading to long-term psychological / physiological issues.

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Problem-Focussed Coping

Applicable when you have a high degree of control over the stressful situation. Involves attempts to change or elimenate the source of stress.

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Emotion-Based Coping

Applicable when you have no control over the stressful situation. Involves strategies which can help moderate stress without amending the situation itself.

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: 2 Strengths

• Has high explanatory power - takes into account individual differences and why two people might interpret the same stressor differently

• Can be applied to a vast number of scenarios and contexts

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: 2 Limitations

• Difficult to test through empirical research due to the subjective nature of the theory

• Primary and secondary appraisals can often interact / occur simultaneously, making it difficult to isolate them in an experimental environment

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping: Application

Can be used to understand why some people respond with extreme stress and rage during traffic jams, whilst others may respond with simple boredom or calm.

Definition of Sleep

A reversible behavioural state characterised by perceptual disengagement from and unresponsiveness to the environment

Breakdown of the Definition of Sleep

1. Reversible behavioural state: sleep is not permanent, with it being possible to return to a state of wakefulness

2. Perceptual disengagement: during sleep, your senses are not actively processing stimuli from tthe surrounding environment

3. Unresponsiveness to the environment: during sleep your body does not react to external stimuli like it would when awake

Rapid-Eye Movement Sleep (REM Sleep)

The period of sleep in which eyeballs rapidly move beneath eyelids. It constitutes roughly 20-25% of the sleep cycle and is the period in which the majority of dreaming occurs.

Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (NREM Sleep)

Constitutes approximately 75-80% of a typical nights sleep and involves deeper sleep. It is subdivided into three major stages.

Sleep: Restoration Theory

This theory proposes that sleep’s purpose is to provide the body with a period of ‘time out’ in which the recourses which were used during the day can be replenished.

3 examples of sleep’s purpose for restoration

• Replenishing vital recourses, such as neurotransmitters, that were used up during the day

• Repairing damaged cells

• Allows muscles to be detoxified to fid them of waste products

3 restorative functions of NREM sleep

Restoring and repairing the body, including:

• Physical growth

• Tissue repair

• Recovery from fatigue

3 restorative functions of REM sleep

• Brain development (in early stages of lifespan)

• Maintains inactive neurons by providing ‘exercise’ to them, preventing the important synaptic pathways from deteriorating

• Consolidation of new memories

Limitations of NREM and REM sleep restoration theory

Some research has suggested that REM and NREM sleep promote recovery in the body, however, no research has been able to generate a conclusive causal relationship between REM / NREM sleep and restoration.

Evolutionary Theory of Sleep

This theory proposes that sleep functionally evolved over time in order to enhance survival, by protecting an organism through making it inactive during the part of the day where it would be most dangerous to move.

According to this theory, once the organism has carried out all of its vital survival functions (eating, drinking, caring for the young), it must spend the rest of its time sleeping to conserve energy, whilst hidden and protected from predators.

This theory emphasises the relationships of sleep to circadian rhythms and how sleep has an adaptive value which has evolved over time to enhance survival.

Circadian Rhythms