DEV PSYCH

7 principles of development according to

• Development is not completed in childhood or adolescence. No single age period dominates development; changes, adaptations, and growth occur throughout the entire human lifespan. [1, 2]

• Growth occurs across biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional domains—which constantly affect and shape one another. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

• Development does not simply progress in a straight line of continuous "upward" growth. At different times, certain dimensions may expand while others shrink (e.g., gaining vocabulary while losing physical processing speed). [1, 2, 3, 4]

• Our abilities and capacities are not fixed. Development suggests that skills, cognitive functions, and memory can be significantly improved with training and practice at any stage of life. [1]

• Understanding human development requires insights from multiple fields of study. Psychologists rely on concepts from neuroscience, sociology, anthropology, medical research, and education. [1]

• An individual's development is heavily influenced by their environment and culture. These contextual influences can be categorized into normative age-graded influences (biological/environmental events tied to age), normative history-graded influences (events tied to a specific historical era), and non-normative life events (unique, unpredictable personal occurrences). [1, 2, 3, 4]

• Development is driven by the allocation of personal resources (time, energy, and talent). Throughout life, these resources are spent on three goals: gaining new skills (growth), maintaining existing abilities, and managing or compensating for functional decline (regulation of loss). [1, 2]

1. Lifelong

2. Multidimentional

3. Multidirectional

4. Plasticity

5. Multidisciplinary

6. Contextual

7. Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation of Loss

In relation to twin studies, this is the probability that two people will share the same trait, given that one of them already has it.

Concordance rate

The genetically determined boundaries (a upper and lower limit) within which an individual can develop, depending on how enriching or restricting their environment is.

Reaction range

A developmental path that is highly robust, tightly restricted, and deeply grooved by genetics. Environmental variations have very little power to change it.

Canalization/Canalized range

the effects of genes depend on what kind of environment we experience, and how we respond to the environment depends on what genes we have.

Gene-environment Correlation

1. parents provide for their children is influenced partly by the parents’ genotypes

2. child’s genotype evokes certain kind of reactions from other people

3. children’s genotype influence the kinds of environment they seek

1. Passive genotype-environment

2. Reactive genotype-environment

3. Active genotype-environment

overgeneralization about ethnic or cultural group that obscures differences within the group

Ethnic gloss

1. biological or environmental events that affect many or most people in a society in similar ways and events that touch only certain individuals

2. They are experiences and changes that are common for individuals within a specific age group (puberty, menopause, formal schooling)

3. They are events that are experienced by a majority of people within a specific culture or society at a similar point in history (WWII)

4. Experiencing atypical events in a typical time or experiencing a typical event in an atypical time.

1. Normative influences

2. Normative-age related influences

3. Normative-history graded influence

4. Non-normative influence

group of people strongly influenced by a major historical event during their formative period

Historical Generation

Instinctive form of learning in which, during a critical period in early development, a young animal forms an attachment to the first moving object it sees, usually the mother

Imprinting

Is a specific time when a given event, or its absence, has a specific impact on development. May be irreversible

Critical period (length is not fixed)

A more extended period of time during development when an individual is particularly receptive and responsive to specific types of experiences. Development could still occur if window is missed. Although gradual and may take time to develop.

Sensitive period

1. people create experiences for themselves and are motivated to learn about the world around them

2. sees people as active, growing organisms that set their own development in motion

3. the developing child as a hungry sponge that soaks up experiences and is shaped by this input over time

4. people are like machines that react to environmental input

5. Which 2 are related to Jean-Jacques Rousseau

6. Which 2 are related to John Locke

1. Active Development

2. Organismic Model

3. Reactive Development

4. Mechanismic Model

5. Active/organismic

6. Reactive/mechanistic

gradual, incremental, and quantitative change such as height, weight, or vocabulary

Continuous Development

Abrupt or uneven. Qualitative Change – (Stage theories)

Discontinuous development

Issues of Development

1. Is development intrinsically motivated, or do we develop based on extrinsic factors?

2. Is development quantitative, gradual, or incremental, or is it qualitative, abrupt, and uneven?

3. Is it based on genes and biological predispositions, or is it based on environmental factors

4. Early vs Late

1. Active vs Reactive (Organismic vs mechanistic)

2. Continous vs Discontinous

3. Nature vs Nurture

4. Is it based on our childhood or should we take each life stage

APA GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1. take care to do no harm or minimize harm

2. establish relationships of trust with those with whom they work

3. promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness

4. fairness and justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from the contributions of psychology and to equal quality in the processes, procedures, and services

5. respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination

1. Beneficence non-maleficence

2. Fidelity

3. Integrity

4. Justice

5. Respect for Rights and dignities

PAP

Column A (Methods)	Column B (Descriptions & Key Characteristics)
____ 1. Descriptive Research	A. Establishes cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating an independent variable; features high internal validity.
____ 2. Case Study	B. A "natural experiment" that compares groups of people who were accidentally assigned to separate conditions by life circumstances.
____ 3. Ethnographic Study	C. Examines the strength and direction of an association between variables; has high external validity but no random assignment.
____ 4. Correlational Study	D. Broadly aims to observe and record behavior as its primary goal.
____ 5. Experiment	E. Essentially a "case study of a culture" that describes customs, traditions, and ways of life; helps debunk Western-developed theories.
____ 6. Quasi-Experiment	F. An in-depth study of a single individual or group; highly useful for rare cases but suffers from low external validity.

1. D.

2. F

3. E

4. C

5. A

6. B

Developmental research designs

1. This design compares different age groups at a single point in time. (targets age effects) Ex. If your age is the reason for tech literacy

2. follows the same group of individuals over an extended period, measuring their characteristics or behaviors at multiple time points. Can target cohort effects, if tech literacy is

3. Can separate age effects from cohort effects by comparing different cohorts at the same age and the same cohort at different ages.

1. Cross-sectional

2. Longitudinal

3. Sequential

Psychosexual theory viewed newborn as “___________”—an inherently selfish creature driven by instincts—inborn biological forces to motivate behavior

seething couldron

Key Concepts in Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

1. psychic energy or sexual drive that motivates human behavior and shifts its focus to different erogenous zones during each stage

2. specific areas of the body that are the primary source of pleasure during each stage

3. an arrest in development that can show up in adult personality

1. Libido

2. Erogenous zones

3. Fixation

Provinces of the Mind/Structure of Personality

1. It seeks immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs, regardless of social norms or consequences

2. Striving to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways

3. Internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from our parents, society, and other authority figures It acts as our conscience, providing guidelines for making judgments and instilling feelings of guilt and pride

1. Id (pleasure)

2. Ego (reality)

3. Super ego (Morality)

Psychosexual Stages

1. At what age does the oral stage start

2. What is the erogenous zone of the oral stage

3. Known as the sucking phase. Infants find pleasure in sucking or swallowing

4. Known as the biting phase. Infants bite, chew, and devour. Emergence of teeth

5. What governs the oral stage?

6. If the biting phase is not properly met, it usually stems from frustration, neglect, or deprivation during the later part of the oral stage. They are often verbally hostile and exploitative, seeking to dominate or manipulate others to get what they want.

7. If the sucking phase is not properly met due to over-indulgence or excessive gratification. This may develop into dependency, gullibility, and a trusting nature.

8. In number 7, this concept is related to Erikson’s malignancy of _____________

9. At what age does the anal stage start

10. At what stage does the ego form

11. What are the essential reflexes learned during the anal stage

12. What is the erogenous zone of the anal stage

13. Anal Triad – ______

14. obsessive neatness, orderliness, and control

15. messiness, rebelliousness, and disorganization

16. This is the stage where the superego develops

17. What is the erogenous zone of the phallic stage

18. Children become aware of their genitals and the differences between sexes

19. A concept where boys develop sexual attachment to their mothers

20. a fear of losing one’s genitals as punishment for incestuous feelings toward the mother and murderous feelings toward the father

21. girls develop sexual attachment to their fathers

22. Female children experience profound distress upon realizing they do not have a penis

23. Age of latency

24. The defensive mechanism present in the latency stage causes libido to be dormant

25. Libido redevelops, energy shifts to heterosexual relationships

1. 1-18 months

2. Mouth

3. Oral receptive

4. Oral sadistic

5. Id

6. Fixation in Oral sadistic/aggressive

7. Fixation in oral receptive/passive

8. sensory distortion

9. 1-3

10. Anal

11. holding on and letting go

12. Anus

13. Obstinacy (stuborness), orderliness, Parsimony (stinginess)

14. Anal retentive

15. Anal expulsive

16. Phallic stage (3-6)

17. genitals

18. Phallic stage

19. Oedepus complex

20. Castration anxiety

21. Female oedipus complex (electra for erikson)

22. Penis envy

23. 6-to12

24. sublimation

25. genital stage

This is the concept where Freud based his Oedipus complex. Where early human males were forced to repress incestuous and parricidal desires due to a collective ancestral trauma.

Primal Horde

Latency period occurs because of the suppression of ______________ and development of ___________

society and superego

Question 1

After receiving a failing grade on a midterm evaluation, a graduate student goes home and immediately kicks their front door, screams at their pet dog, and snaps at their roommate for leaving a dish in the sink. Which defense mechanism is this student utilizing?

• A) Regression

• B) Displacement

• C) Projection

• D) Sublimation

Question 2

An executive is secretly terrified of losing control and being viewed as weak. To cope with this unconscious fear, they adopt an incredibly rigid, domineering persona at the clinic, constantly lecturing everyone on the absolute necessity of "ironclad emotional toughness" and showing zero vulnerability. Which defense mechanism is driving this behavior?

• A) Reaction Formation

• B) Rationalization

• C) Repression

• D) Regression

Question 3

A client arrives late to three consecutive therapy sessions. When the clinician brings this up, the client insists, "Well, the parking garage layout here is completely inefficient, and the traffic lights on Main Street aren't timed correctly. Anyone would be late under these municipal conditions." Which defense mechanism is the client using?

• A) Denial

• B) Regression

• C) Rationalization

• D) Projection

A clinician notices that an adult patient admitted to an inpatient ward begins sucking their thumb and curling up into a fetal position whenever they are asked to discuss their upcoming discharge plan. Which defense mechanism is being exhibited?

• A) Repression

• B) Regression

• C) Displacement

• D) Projection

1. B.

2. A.

3. C.

4. B.

Column A (Mechanism)	Column B (Clinical Scenario)
____ 1. Repression	A. A person with a history of intense, violent impulses joins a local boxing gym and becomes a highly disciplined, celebrated competitive athlete.
____ 2. Denial	B. An individual who harbors deep, unconscious feelings of intense jealousy toward a coworker constantly complains to HR that the coworker is "totally obsessed with sabotaging and acting jealous of me."
____ 3. Projection	C. A patient who survived a severe, traumatic accident years ago genuinely has absolutely no conscious awareness or recollection of the event ever occurring.
____ 4. Sublimation	D. A person diagnosed with a severe, advanced illness completely refuses to seek medical treatment or make a will, insisting to their family that they are perfectly healthy and the lab work is just a mistake.

1. C

2. D’

3. B

4. A

modified and extended Freudian theory by emphasizing the influence of society on the developing personality

Psychosocial development theory

a major psychosocial challenge that is particularly important at that time and will remain an issue to some degree throughout

Crisis

or strength, the successful outcome of each stage of Erikson’s theory

Virtue

is a negative trait or pattern of behavior that can hinder their development and well-being in Erikson’s theory

Core-pathology

Age, crisis, output (maladaptation vs core pathology/malignancy) of Erikson

Infancy - Trust vs Mistrust - Sensory distortion vs withdrawal

Early childhood (18 months to 3) - Autonomy vs shame and doubt - impulsivity vs compulsivity

play age (3 - 6) initiative vs guilt - ruthlessness vs inhibition

school age (6-12) - Industry vs inferiority - narrow virtuosity vs inertia

adolescents (13-18) identity vs identity confusion - fanaticism vs repudiation

emerging adulthood (19 to 40) intimacy vs isolation - promiscuity vs exclusivity

middle adulthood (40 - 65) generativity vs stagnation - overextension vs rejectivity

late adulthood (65 - onwards) ego integrity vs despair - presumption vs disdain

Part of piaget’s theory posits that learners do not passively receive information; they actively construct knowledge by integrating new experiences with their existing mental frameworks.

Constructivism

The building blocks of knowledge according to piaget

Schemas

The main focus of Piaget’s theory on children’s answers are ____ and ________

Reasoning and logic

taking new information and incorporating it into existing cognitive structures. Ex. A child saw a giraffe and called it a long dog because it has four legs.

Assimilation

hen that same child points to the cat and is told, "No, that's a cat," they experience a contradiction. They must alter their mental framework and create a brand new schema for "cat". This is an example of?

Accomodation

The cognitive process of balancing new information with existing mental frameworks (schemas) to maintain mental harmony. Could either use assimilation or accommodation

equilibration

1. Stage of cognitive development, infants learn about themselves and their world through their developing sensory and motor activity

2. characterized by an expansion in the use of symbolic thought. However, children are not yet fully ready to engage in logical mental operation

3. they can think logically because they can take multiple aspects of a situation into account. However, their thinking is still limited to real situations in the here and now

4. the highest level of cognitive development occurs when they move away from their reliance on concrete, real-world stimuli and develop the capacity for abstract thought

1. Sensorimotor

2. Preoperational thought

3. concrete-operational thought

4. formal-operational thought

A 20-month-old child watches his father hide a toy inside a cabinet. The father secretly moves the toy into a drawer while the child is distracted. When allowed to search, the child immediately opens the drawer instead of the cabinet.

This behavior best demonstrates which cognitive achievement?

A. Deferred imitation
B. Symbolic thought
C. Object permanence with mental representation
D. Conservation

2. Reflexive Schemes (Substage 1)

A newborn repeatedly sucks on anything that touches her lips, whether it is a bottle, finger, or blanket. She does not alter the pattern regardless of the object.

Which sensorimotor substage best explains this behavior?

A. Primary Circular Reactions
B. Reflexive Schemes
C. Secondary Circular Reactions
D. Coordination of Secondary Schemes

3. Primary Circular Reactions (Substage 2)

A 3-month-old accidentally sucks his thumb. Finding it pleasurable, he repeatedly brings his thumb back to his mouth over the next several days, even without external encouragement.

This behavior is characteristic of

A. Secondary Circular Reactions
B. Primary Circular Reactions
C. Tertiary Circular Reactions
D. Mental Representation

4. Secondary Circular Reactions (Substage 3)

An infant accidentally shakes a rattle and hears a pleasant sound. She repeatedly shakes different rattles because she enjoys hearing the noise.

This best illustrates

A. Primary Circular Reactions
B. Secondary Circular Reactions
C. Coordination of Secondary Schemes
D. Symbolic Play

5. Coordination of Secondary Schemes (Substage 4)

An infant notices a favorite toy behind a pillow. He first pushes the pillow away before reaching for the toy.

This behavior demonstrates

A. Trial-and-error experimentation
B. Goal-directed behavior using coordinated schemes
C. Reflexive adaptation
D. Symbolic reasoning

6. Tertiary Circular Reactions (Substage 5)

A toddler repeatedly drops different objects from different heights to observe the sounds each object makes. He appears interested in discovering what changes when he varies his actions.

Which substage best describes this?

A. Secondary Circular Reactions
B. Coordination of Secondary Schemes
C. Tertiary Circular Reactions
D. Mental Representation

7. Mental Representation (Substage 6)

A toddler spends several minutes looking at a locked gate blocking her path. Without physically trying several methods, she suddenly retrieves a nearby stick and uses it to unlatch the gate.

This illustrates

A. Trial-and-error learning
B. Deferred imitation
C. Insight through mental representation
D. Egocentrism

8. Sensorimotor Substage Identification

A baby repeatedly kicks her legs because she enjoys the feeling of moving them. She is not trying to affect objects around her.

Which substage does this most likely represent?

A. Reflexive Schemes
B. Primary Circular Reactions
C. Secondary Circular Reactions
D. Tertiary Circular Reactions

9. Preoperational Stage

During a family dinner, a child insists that a tall, narrow glass contains more juice than a short, wide glass, even after watching the juice being poured directly between them.

Which limitation is primarily responsible?

A. Lack of reversibility
B. Hypothetical reasoning
C. Formal operational thinking
D. Abstract deduction

10. Preoperational Stage

A girl believes the moon is following her as she walks home because it "likes her."

This reasoning most directly reflects

A. Animism
B. Egocentrism
C. Seriation
D. Conservation

11. Concrete Operational Stage

Two classmates arrange sticks by length without making measurement errors. They correctly identify where a newly introduced stick belongs in the sequence.

This demonstrates

A. Symbolic function
B. Seriation
C. Hypothetical reasoning
D. Deferred imitation

12. Concrete Operational Stage

A student explains that if John is taller than Mark, and Mark is taller than Alex, then John must also be taller than Alex—even though all three boys are absent.

This demonstrates

A. Transitive inference
B. Egocentrism
C. Symbolic play
D. Animistic reasoning

13. Formal Operational Stage

When solving a science experiment, a teenager systematically changes only one variable at a time while keeping all others constant to determine the cause of the outcome.

Which stage best explains this reasoning?

A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete Operational
D. Formal Operational

14. Formal Operational Stage

A student debates whether laws should always be obeyed even if they are morally wrong. He discusses multiple hypothetical situations that have never occurred.

This best reflects

A. Conservation
B. Symbolic function
C. Abstract and hypothetical reasoning
D. Circular reactions

15. Challenging Comparison

An infant repeatedly presses a musical button because she enjoys hearing the sound.

Several months later, she intentionally moves a cushion to reach the same button after it becomes blocked.

Which sequence correctly identifies the substages?

A. Primary Circular Reaction → Tertiary Circular Reaction
B. Secondary Circular Reaction → Coordination of Secondary Schemes
C. Reflexive Scheme → Primary Circular Reaction
D. Tertiary Circular Reaction → Mental Representation

16. Challenging Comparison

A toddler sees an adult use a spoon as a pretend airplane. Two days later, without seeing the adult again, the toddler imitates the exact behavior.

Which sensorimotor achievement makes this possible?

A. Secondary Circular Reaction
B. Deferred imitation through mental representation
C. Primary Circular Reaction
D. Goal-directed coordination

17. Very Difficult

A researcher observes two infants:

• Infant A repeatedly opens and closes a cabinet door because of the interesting sound it makes.

• Infant B repeatedly opens and closes different types of doors, drawers, and boxes to compare the sounds and resistance each produces.

Which pairing is most accurate?

A. A = Secondary Circular Reaction; B = Tertiary Circular Reaction
B. A = Primary Circular Reaction; B = Secondary Circular Reaction
C. A = Coordination of Secondary Schemes; B = Mental Representation
D. A = Reflexive Schemes; B = Primary Circular Reaction

18.

A child says:

"Clouds move because they want to keep people cool."

This statement primarily reflects

A. Egocentrism
B. Conservation failure
C. Animistic thinking
D. Transitive inference

19

A child correctly solves conservation tasks involving liquid, mass, and number but struggles to reason about all possible combinations of four colored blocks to test every arrangement systematically.

Which stage is the child most likely in?

A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete Operational
D. Formal Operational

20.

A toddler first repeatedly bangs a spoon on a table because he enjoys the sound. Later, he intentionally combines the spoon with different surfaces—wood, glass, metal, and plastic—to compare the resulting sounds.

The transition is best described as

A. Reflexive Schemes → Primary Circular Reactions
B. Secondary Circular Reactions → Tertiary Circular Reactions
C. Coordination of Secondary Schemes → Mental Representation
D. Primary Circular Reactions → Secondary Circular Reactions

1. A seven-month-old infant accidentally kicks a mobile hanging above the crib, causing it to spin. Delighted by the movement, the infant repeats the kicking motion specifically to make the mobile spin again. Which sensorimotor substage is best illustrated?

• A.

  Tertiary circular reactions

• B.

  Coordination of secondary circular reactions

• C.

  Secondary circular reactions

• D.

  Primary circular reactions

2. A toddler is presented with a jack-in-the-box. Instead of simply turning the crank, the toddler tries turning it slowly, then quickly, then backwards, while watching the lid closely. Which substage does this systematic 'trial-and-error' experimentation represent?

   
   A. Internalization of schemes

B.Tertiary circular reactions

C.Secondary circular reactions

D.Coordination of secondary circular reactions

3. An infant watches as a researcher hides a toy under Box A several times, and the infant successfully finds it. The researcher then moves the toy to Box B in plain sight of the infant. The infant still reaches for Box A. What does this 'A-not-B error' indicate about their current substage?

A. Substage 6

B. Substage 5

C. Substage 3

D. Substage 4

4. A child is told: 'All blue birds have orange beaks. This creature is a blue bird. Does it have an orange beak?' The child responds, 'No, I saw a blue bird yesterday and its beak was black.' Which stage is the child likely in?

A. Concrete operational

B. Sensorimotor

C. Formal operational

D. Preoperational

5. A child sees a ball roll under a sofa. Instead of looking for it immediately, the child pauses, looks at a yardstick nearby, picks it up, and uses it to reach under the sofa. Which sensorimotor substage does this mental planning represent?

A. Internalization of schemes

B. Simple reflexes

C. Tertiary circular reactions

D. Coordination of secondary circular reactions

6. During a conservation task, a child acknowledges that two identical balls of clay have the same amount. After one is flattened into a 'pancake,' the child insists the pancake has more clay because it is 'wider.' This is an example of:

A. Reversibility

B. Animism

C. Egocentrism

D. Centration

7. A teenager is asked to determine which factor (length of string, weight, or height of release) affects the speed of a pendulum's swing. They systematically test one variable at a time while holding others constant. Which stage is this?

A. Formal operational

B. Preoperational

C. Concrete operational

D. Internalization of schemes

8. An infant repeatedly brings their hand to their mouth to suck their thumb. Every time the hand falls away, the infant struggles to bring it back until they successfully catch the thumb again. Which substage does this represent?

A. Secondary circular reactions

B. Tertiary circular reactions

C. Primary circular reactions

D. Simple reflexes

9. A 4-year-old child covers their eyes and says, 'You can't see me!' because they cannot see you. This demonstration of the belief that others see exactly what they see is known as:

A. Egocentrism

B. Centration

C. Object permanence

D. Conservation

6 substages of sensory-motor stage

1. Infants exercise their informed reflexes and gain some control over them

2. Repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occur by chance. Focused on one’s body (such as thumbsucking). Pleasure

3. Become more interested in the environment; they repeat actions that bring interesting results and prolong interesting experiences

4. Coordinate previously learned schemes and use previously learned behaviors to attain their goals Ex. combining pushing a box to get a toy. True intentional thought and the start of object permanence

5. Toddlers show curiosity and experimentation. Little scientist

6. They can think about events and anticipate their consequences without always resorting to action. Representational thought

1. Primary reflex

2. Primary circular reactions

3. Secondary circular reactions

4. Coordination of secondary schemes

5. Tertiary circular reactions

6. Mental coordination

To understand a symbol, a child must mentally represent it in two ways at once: as a concrete physical object and as an abstract representation of something else. Children under 3 struggle with this.

Dual-representation hypothesis

Stage attainments:

1. Sensory motor

2. preoperational stage

3. concrete operational stage

4. formal operational stage

1. object permanence

2. Theory of mind

3. Conservation

4. Deductive reasoning

being able to think about something in the absence of sensory or motor cues

Representational ability

Object permanence

Symbolic function

children imitate an action at some point after having observed it (Cognitive theory)

Deferred imitation

Column A

1. _____ During a science activity, Mia watches a ball roll off a table. She predicts it will fall because "things without support usually fall."

2. _____ After arranging pencils from shortest to longest, Ethan easily inserts a newly found pencil into the correct position without starting over.

3. _____ A child insists that a magician really made a rabbit appear because "magic powers make impossible things happen."

4. _____ Noah says that the classroom clock "doesn't want us to go home yet because it keeps making us wait."

5. _____ While looking at two equal rows of coins, Chloe says one row has more coins after it is spread farther apart.

6. _____ A teacher asks, "If Carla is older than Bea, and Bea is older than Dana, who is the oldest?" Liam correctly answers without seeing the three children together.

7. _____ A child believes that the moon follows only her family whenever they drive at night.

8. _____ When asked whether there are more roses or more flowers in a bouquet containing 8 roses and 4 tulips, a child answers, "More roses."

9. _____ After watching clay rolled into a long sausage shape, a student explains that it still has the same amount because it can simply be rolled back into a ball.

10. _____ Sofia claims that mountains exist because construction workers built them a long time ago.

11. _____ A child explains that he got sick because he forgot to wear his favorite red shirt that morning.

12. _____ After seeing two identical glasses filled with juice, one glass is poured into a taller, thinner container. The child insists the taller glass contains more because "it's higher."

13. _____ A student solving a mystery notices that every plant near a broken pipe has died. She concludes the leaking chemical probably caused the plants to die.

14. _____ While reading a map, Marcus correctly determines that the library is north of the school even though he has never walked between the two buildings.

15. _____ A child initially says that a flattened ball of clay has more clay, but after thinking for a moment, says, "Wait... if you squish it back into a ball, it'll be the same."

16. _____ Emma understands that the width of a container changed, so she considers both the height and width before deciding that the amount of water stayed the same.

A. Transduction

B. Animism

C. Egocentrism

D. Centration

E. Irreversibility

F. Artificialism

G. Seriation

H. Transitive inference

I. Class inclusion

J. Conservation

K. Inductive reasoning

L. Reversibility

M. Decenter

N. Causality

O. Spatial concepts

1. N (Concrete)

2. G (Concrete)

3. A (Preoperational)

4. B (preoperational)

5. D (Preoperational)

6. H (Concrete)

7. C. (preoperational)

8. I (Concrete operational)

9. L (Concrete operational)

10. F (