Intro to Ethics - chapter 1

Moral Theory

What is philosophy?

• The pursuit of Truth and the love of wisdom

  • Foundation of every other study

What is Truth?

• Not something to be obtained but a process to be followed — Not a matter of opinion

What is ethics?

• Moral philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right/wrong behavior

What are the 3 categories of ethics

• Normative ethics

• Meta-ethics

• Applied ethics

Explain the Stanley Milgram experiment:

• An experiment to see if Americans would be persuaded to follow the orders of an authority figure just like Hitler/Nazis

What we’re the results from the Milgram experiment?

• People can be persuaded to inflict pain/torture if an authority figure said so

What was one flaw that the Milgram experiment?

• It only included men, it wasn’t a representative sample (Not for everyone — only men)

Why is simply saying, “no, it’s not right.” not enough according to the Milgram experiment?

• Only when you have a strong and justifiable reason for not complying will you be able to stand up to authority/external pressures.

What are Josiah Royce’s thoughts on personal morality?

• We first learn right/wrong as kids but don’t understand it on our own, it’s taught by others —If we don’t learn it on our own → controls us — He leans on the Principle of Autonomy

How do Josiah Royce’s thoughts on personal morality relate to the Milgram experiment?

• Both are based on the appeal to authority — right/wrong is imposed on us (like authority) and we must comply because we don’t know better

What is moral philosophy?

• Study of the values/guidelines that we live by and justifying them (using the theories) — Moral theories are like tools

Explain normative ethics?

• The study of the values/guidelines that we live by

What are applied ethics?

• Applying these principles to actual situations (applying normative ehtics)

What are theoretical ethics (meta-ethics)

• The justification of our moral value — Uses critical thinking and logical reasoning

What is the ability to reason?

• To apply logic to the thought process (Not a skill we’re born with)

What is fallacious reasoning?

• Reasoning that has holes in it and isn’t concrete

  • Appeal to authority is one of these

What makes for a good moral theory?

• Must be universal and impartial — must apply to everyone in similar circumstances

Explain the concept of opinions:

Moral theory are NOT opinions + Opinions - built on fact and should be reasonable

What is the purpose of moral theory?

• When we’re grounded in moral theory, we’re less likely to fall for poorly reasoned positions (opinions)

Explain True Wisdom

Humans on their own are weak and limited + If someone puts all their trust in God → it’s like a tree planted in water ( stay strong even during drought)

What are the 4 reliances from Buddhist Skepticism?

1. rely on teaching — not the person

2. rely on meaning — not words

3. rely on the definite meaning — not the provisional

4. rely on the wisdom mind — not on your ordinary mind

Explain Siddhartha’s Kalama Discourse

• Don’t believe a spiritual teaching just because

  • It’s handed from guru to disciple — authority theory

  • Everyone around you believes it — bandwagon theory

  • It’s sound rational to you — naturalistic theory

What are informal fallacies?

• Logically incorrect reasonings

• Some include → improper premise, faulty generalizations, red herring (irrelevant/distracting arg.)

What is Equivocation?

• Misleading use of a term with more than one meaning

  • meaning of a word changes during an argument

What is the Principle of Autonomy?

• having the freedom to make our own choices without being controlled by others

What is proof by Lack of Evidence

• Claiming that something is true because nobody has yet given any evidence to the contrary.

What is Ad Hominem?

• Attacking the person instead of the argument itself

Appeal to force

• Force of threat or indimidation to accept one’s position

What is Bandwagon theory?

• The opinion of the majority must mean a position is valid. (majority rule)

What’s a hasty generalization

• Making a conclusion based on insufficient information (or too small of a sample)

What is Irrelevant conclusion?

• The argument may be valid but it doesn’t address the actual issue in question.

What is the Naturalistic Theory?

• Arguing based on what’s already the case and presumed to be correct. (ought to be)

What’s the difference between Naturalistic and Appeal to Nature Theory?

• Naturalistic - based on what is ought to be true.

• Appeal to nature - Something’s found in nature so it must be true.

What is Appeal to tradition?

• A conclusion is accurate because it has always been held true 

What is a Red herring?

• An irrelevant or distracting argument.

  • Ex. attacking person, getting emotional, what is ought to be, traditions, etc…

What is Appeal to Novelty?

• Something is inherently better because it’s new

What is Appeal to Emotion?

• Manipulating someone’s emotions in order to get them to a certain conclusion instead of using reason.

  • Using fear of flattery

Appeal to authority

• Because someone is an authority, their argument must be correct.

What is Straw Man

• Misrepresenting an opponent’s argument in order to easily knock it down. (exaggerating it/taking it out of context)

What is a false analogy?

• Using an improper or unsuitable analogy to draw a conclusion

What is Cherry picking?

• Choosing to only look at specific information as evidence and ignoring all the data opposing your argument.

What is Circular reasoning?

• The argument begins in the same place that it ends. (assuming the conclusion)

What is Begging the question?

• Presenting what is basically the conclusion of an argument as its premise

  • Chocolate is delicious because it's “yummy". "Yummy" is just another word for delicious, offering no new information to support the claim. 

What is Either-or/False Dilemma?

• Assuming that there are only two possible options

What do all the fallacies have in common?

• None of them deal with the argument itself, instead they’re diversions

What does a theory do?

• Explains, clarifies, critically analyzes, and ranks moral concerns

What are the two main categories of moral theory

• Ethical relativism - Morality is invented by people, personal feeling (not objective)

• Universalist (objectivist) - Impartial and universally true for all people

What two sub-topics is Ethical Relativism broken down into?

• Ethical subjectivism - Only opinions or preferences, not moral truths

• Cultural Relativism - Right/wrong is created by societies/public opinion

Why is cultural relativism based on faulty reasoning?

• draws a conclusion on what ought to be

• Confuses what is morally right with what is legal/social norm

What are 4 things that are wrong with Cultural Relativism?

1. Sees morality with maintaining the status quo

2. Encourages blindly following the crowd

3. Majority holds a view → doesn’t make it desirable

4. Assumes that there aren’t universal moral values

What does it mean to Doublethink?

• Holding two contradicting views while believing that they’re both true

What is Sociological Relativism?

• Not an argument nor a moral theory but a descriptive statement about societies.

What is Freedom?

• Freedom is also tied to responsibility not just personal desire 

Who was Claude Levi-Strauss

• french ethnologist

• Developed structuralism → the idea that human cultures have underlying structures (like language) that shape how people think/live

Who was Jacques Derrida?

• Algerian Philosopher

• Created deconstruction - Anything can be broken down to uncover hidden assumptions/values

What is Moral community?

• Those seen as having moral value

• Consists of beings who have moral worth and therefore deserve protection/respect

• Protects the interests of those in power

What is anthropocentrism?

• Belief that human beings are the most significant entities in the universe

What is ethnocentrism

• Belief that one’s culture or ethnic group is morally superior

• Some has moral value → society grants this status

What is marginalization?

Dismissing beings to the edges of the moral community (less status)

What is Depersonalization

• Removing an individual’s character traits and inherent worth (removing from moral community)