Attribution Theory, Attitudes, and Social Influence

Attribution Theory

The idea that we explain people's behavior by attributing it to either their internal disposition (personality, character) or external situations (environment, context).

Dispositional Attribution

Explaining behavior based on a person's traits.

Situational Attribution

Explaining behavior based on the situation.

Explanatory Style

A person's habitual way of explaining events, either optimistically (seeing the good) or pessimistically (expecting the worst).

Actor-Observer Bias

We explain our own behavior based on situations, but explain others' behavior based on their personality.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate personality and underestimate the situation when judging others.

Self-Serving Bias

Taking credit for successes (internal attribution) and blaming failures on outside forces.

Locus of Control

External: Life is controlled by outside forces (luck, fate, other people). Internal: You believe you control your outcomes and decisions.

Mere Exposure Effect

The more you are exposed to something, the more you tend to like it (familiarity breeds liking).

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Your expectations cause you or others to behave in ways that make them come true.

Person Perception

The process of forming impressions of others — based on facial expressions, body language, stereotypes, etc.

Social Comparison

Evaluating yourself by comparing to others — can be upward (to someone better) or downward (to someone worse off).

Relative Deprivation

Feeling deprived when comparing yourself to someone who seems better off, even if your situation hasn't changed.

Stereotype

A fixed, oversimplified belief about a group.

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward a group — often based on stereotypes.

Discrimination

Behavior that shows unfair treatment of a group based on prejudice.

Explicit Attitude

Conscious beliefs and opinions you can express.

Implicit Attitude

Unconscious, automatic associations or feelings toward a group or idea.

Just-World Phenomenon

Belief that the world is fair — that people get what they deserve (which can lead to victim-blaming).

Victim-Blaming

Tied to the just-world idea — blaming people for their misfortunes because 'they must have done something to deserve it.'

In-Group / Out-Group

In-group: The group you belong to. Out-group: Everyone else.

In-Group Bias

Favoring your own group over others.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

Believing members of the out-group are all alike.

Ethnocentrism

Judging other cultures by the standards of your own, often thinking yours is superior.

Cultural Relativism

Understanding another culture by its own standards, not your own — shows cultural respect and humility.

Belief Perseverance

Continuing to believe something even after evidence proves it wrong.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to look for information that confirms what you already believe, and ignore evidence that contradicts it.

Cognitive Dissonance

The mental discomfort we feel when our beliefs and actions contradict each other.

Social Norms

Unwritten rules about how to behave in a group or society.

Social Influence Theory

The idea that our behaviors are influenced by the presence and actions of others — including conformity, obedience, and group behavior.

Normative Influence

Conforming because you want to be liked, accepted, or avoid disapproval.

Informational Influence

Conforming because you think others know more than you do.

Informational Influence

Conforming because you think others know more than you do. → Looking at others during a fire alarm to decide what to do.

Persuasion

Trying to change someone's attitude or beliefs.

Central Route Persuasion

Persuasion using facts, logic, and strong arguments. → Buying a car after reading detailed reviews.

Peripheral Route Persuasion

Persuasion through superficial cues like attractiveness or emotions. → Buying a product because a celebrity endorsed it.

Halo Effect

The tendency to think attractive people have other positive traits (smart, kind, capable), even without evidence.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Start with a small request, then follow up with a bigger one. → 'Can you sign this petition?' → 'Can you donate now?'

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Start with a big request you expect to be denied, then ask for something smaller (what you really want). → 'Can I borrow $100?' → 'Okay, how about $10?'

Conformity

Changing your behavior to match a group, even if you disagree.

Obedience

Following orders from authority, even if you feel conflicted. → Milgram's shock experiment.

Individualism

Cultural value that emphasizes personal goals and independence. → Common in Western cultures.

Collectivism

Cultural value that emphasizes group harmony and cooperation. → Common in East Asian cultures.

Multiculturalism

Appreciating and celebrating different cultures, rather than expecting everyone to conform.

Group Polarization

Group discussions make members adopt more extreme opinions than they initially held.

Groupthink

A desire for group harmony leads to poor decision-making — members don't speak up even when they disagree.

Diffusion of Responsibility

In a group, individuals feel less personal responsibility to act. → 'Someone else will help.'

Social Loafing

People put in less effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

Deindividuation

Losing self-awareness and personal responsibility in a group. → Mob behavior, online trolling.

Social Facilitation

Doing better on easy tasks when others are watching — but possibly worse on difficult tasks.

False Consensus Effect

Overestimating how much other people agree with your beliefs and behaviors.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that require cooperation — they help break down group boundaries. → Two rival groups working together to fix a water supply.

Social Trap

A situation where short-term personal gain leads to long-term loss for the group. → Overfishing, pollution.

I/O Psychologist

A psychologist who helps companies improve productivity, workplace satisfaction, and hiring practices.

Burnout

Extreme physical and emotional exhaustion caused by long-term job stress.

Altruism

Selfless behavior — helping others with no expectation of reward.

Social Reciprocity Norm

The social rule that we should help those who help us.

Bystander Effect

People are less likely to help when others are present — everyone assumes someone else will.

Psychodynamic Theory

Behavior is shaped by unconscious conflicts, desires, and early childhood experiences. → Developed by Freud.

Unconscious

Deep part of the mind that holds hidden desires, fears, and memories that influence behavior.

Personality

A person's characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving over time.

Ego Defense Mechanism

Unconscious strategies the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety or conflict.

Ego

The rational, decision-making part of the personality — balances the id (wants) and superego (morals).

Common Defense Mechanisms

Denial: Refusing to accept reality. Displacement: Taking feelings out on a safer target. → Yelling at your sibling after a bad day at school. Projection: Attributing your own faults to others. → 'She's jealous' when you are the jealous one. Regression: Reverting to childish behavior when stressed. Repression: Pushing painful thoughts out of awareness. Sublimation: Channeling bad urges into positive actions. → Taking anger out in sports or art.

Projective Test

A test (like the Rorschach Inkblot Test) that uses ambiguous images to uncover unconscious thoughts.

Preconscious

Thoughts you're not thinking about right now, but can easily access.

Humanistic Theory

Focuses on free will, personal growth, and the inherent goodness of people.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Total acceptance and love, regardless of behavior — key to healthy self-worth (Carl Rogers).

Self-Actualization

Becoming the best version of yourself — fulfilling your potential (top of Maslow's hierarchy).

Social-Cognitive Theory

Personality is shaped by interactions between thinking, behavior, and environment (Bandura).

Reciprocal Determinism

Your environment, thoughts, and behaviors all influence each other.

Self-Concept

How you see yourself — your identity and self-image.

Self-Efficacy

Your belief in your ability to succeed at a specific task.

Self-Esteem

How much you like and value yourself overall.

Trait Theory

Personality is made up of stable traits that influence behavior.

Big Five Traits (OCEAN)

Openness - Creative, curious, open to new experiences; Conscientiousness - Organized, reliable, hardworking; Extraversion - Outgoing, energetic; Agreeableness - Kind, cooperative, trusting; Neuroticism - Emotionally unstable, anxious (opposite of emotional stability).

Personality Inventory

A questionnaire used to measure personality traits (e.g., the Big Five test).

Factor Analysis

A statistical method to group related traits into clusters (used to identify the Big Five).

Motivation

A desire or need that energizes and directs behavior.

Drive-Reduction Theory

We're motivated to act in ways that reduce internal tension (drives) and restore homeostasis. → Eat when hungry.

Arousal Theory

We seek the optimal level of stimulation — not too bored, not too stressed.

Homeostasis

The body's effort to maintain a stable internal state (like temperature, hunger).

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Moderate arousal = best performance. → Low = lazy, high = anxious.

Self-Determination Theory

Motivation is strongest when we feel: Autonomy (control over our life), Competence (feeling capable), Relatedness (connected to others).

Intrinsic Motivation

Doing something because it's inherently enjoyable or meaningful.

Extrinsic Motivation

Doing something for rewards or to avoid punishment.

Incentive Theory

Behavior is pulled by external rewards, like money or praise.

Instincts

Innate behaviors we're born with — common to the species.

Lewin's Motivational Conflict Theory

Describes how we make choices when faced with competing goals.

Types of Conflict

Approach-Approach: Two good options; Approach-Avoidance: One option with pros and cons; Avoidance-Avoidance: Two bad options.

Sensation-Seeking Theory

Some people have a higher need for novel, intense, or risky experiences.

Ghrelin

A hormone that increases hunger.

Leptin

A hormone that signals fullness and reduces appetite.

Pituitary Gland

The "master gland" that regulates hormones for hunger, stress, and growth.

Satiety

The feeling of being full and satisfied after eating.

Emotion (Affect)

A complex state that includes: Physical reaction (e.g., heart racing), Expressive behavior (e.g., facial expression), Conscious feeling (e.g., fear, joy).

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Facial expressions can influence your emotions. → Smiling can make you feel happier.

James-Lange Theory

Physical reaction comes first, emotion comes after. → "I'm afraid because my heart is racing."

Cannon-Bard Theory

Physical reaction and emotion happen at the same time, not one after the other.

Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor) Theory

Emotion = physical arousal + cognitive label. → Heart races + "I'm in danger" = fear.