Acdec Art 35-47

Formal Qualities intro

While it is crucial to examine any given work of art in its historical context in order to arrive at an understanding of its meaning, it is also important to focus intently on the formal qualities or the basic visual components of a work of art. These include line, shape, form, space, color, and texture, among other things.

Formal analysis requires careful observation and description, often using the special vocabulary of art.

(Line)

is the most basic of art elements. The corners of rooms, the edges of doors, and the line where two colors meet all provide examples of how edges may be seen as lines.

Any kind of mark-making tool—a finger, pencil, paint, etc.—can be used to create a line on a surface. The strict definition of a line is the path of a point moving through space. But beyond this technical definition, lines have a variety of characteristics such as length, width, and direction. Lines may appear hard or soft, bold or indistinct, uniform or varying in width. Sometimes lines are not solid but consist of a series of interrupted dots or lines that the eye connects to create an implied line. Think of prints in the sand or snow that imply the path of a person or animal. Sometimes we see the edges of objects as lines.

(Expressive Line)

Artists use lines to express ideas or feelings visually. Though the use of lines is perhaps most essential and noticeable in drawing and some kinds of printmaking, all artists use line in their artwork in some way.

Horizontal and vertical lines create a stable and static feeling. Vertical lines cause the eye to move upward. Medieval churches were created with very high arched ceilings, designed to raise the eyes of the people upward toward heaven to promote a feeling of spiritual awe. Horizontal lines, such as the line of the horizon, suggest a feeling of peace and tranquility while curving and jagged lines create a sense of activity.

(Shape and Form)

Shape and form are two elements of art that are closely related to one another. In a two-dimensional artwork, an artist may try to create the illusion of form through the use of shading, foreshortening, perspective, and other techniques.

Shape is what defines the two-dimensional area of an object, whereas forms are objects that are three-dimensional, having length, width, and depth. For example, a square is a shape, but a cube is a form. A triangle is a shape; a pyramid or a cone is a form. When one draws an apple that in nature is a form, one draws a shape that represents the apple. If one creates an apple out of clay, that clay apple is a form.

(Geometric vs Organic)

Shapes and forms may be geometric, such as circles/ spheres and squares/cubes. A geometric shape or form can convey a sense of order and stability, while organic shapes and forms tend to express movement and rhythm.

These geometric shapes and forms can be defined mathematically and are precise and regular. Some shapes and forms are described as being “organic” since living things tend to be freeform and irregular in shape or form.

(Space)

Space is an element of art related to the organization of objects and the areas around them. Such sculptures may be in high relief—projecting boldly from the surface—or bas (low) relief—projecting only slightly from the surface of the sculpture.

The objects, shapes, or forms in an artwork occupy what is termed positive space. Sometimes these objects, shapes, or forms may be called the figure. The area around these objects, shapes, or forms represents negative space. In three-dimensional forms, negative space may surround the forms or may be created as a result of open spaces within the forms. Three-dimensional artworks include, among other forms, architecture, ceramic objects, and sculpture. The two primary types of sculpture are freestanding, or fully in the round, and relief, meaning that the sculpture projects from a surface or background of which it is a part.

(Illusion of depth)

The creation of perspective or the illusion of depth is another important use of space in two-dimensional artworks. Moreover, the artist can make objects appear closer to the viewer by giving them greater detail than objects that are farther away—replicating the manner in which our eyes are able to perceive more detail in objects that are nearer to us.

There are many effective techniques that artists can use to create an illusion of three-dimensionality. They may use shading and highlighting on the contours—the visible borders—of objects to replicate the manner in which light shining on objects lends those objects a sense of volume and space. An artist can also create a sense of depth in an artwork by placing objects or figures lower on the picture plane to make them appear closer to the viewer. Or, one can do the reverse and place objects and figures higher on the plane to make them appear farther away from the viewer. Artists can also manipulate the size of objects to create a sense of perspective—larger objects will appear closer to the viewer than smaller objects. An artist can also have closer objects overlap objects that are farther away to indicate depth and distance.

(Aerial Perspective)

Aerial perspective, also called atmospheric perspective, is a technique that takes into account the ways that fog, smoke, and airborne particles change the appearance of things when they are viewed from a distance. When an artist uses this technique, objects that are farther away will appear lighter and more neutral in color and will lack contrast of color or value.

(Linear Perspective)

Frequently, when we think of perspective, we think of the mathematical techniques that were developed during the Renaissance that can be used to create the illusion of space. Thus, in drawing a black and white checkerboard floor (a frequent feature in Renaissance interior paintings), the horizontal lines of the tiles are drawn as parallel, but the vertical lines—which we know are also parallel in reality—appear to converge or come together in a systematic way as they recede toward the back wall of the interior.

Such techniques create what is called linear perspective because this perspective is founded on the visual phenomenon that as lines recede into the distance, they appear to converge and eventually vanish at a point on the horizon. We may, for example, notice this effect when viewing highways, railroads, or fence posts as they stretch into the distance. In employing linear perspective, the artist establishes one or more vanishing points on the real or imagined horizon of the artwork. Then, lines are carefully drawn to ensure a precise and extremely realistic depiction of interior and exterior scenes.

(Hue/Color Wheel)

Color surrounds us wherever we go and is a compelling element in art. The color wheel is a useful tool for predicting the results of mixing hues.

Hue is simply the name of the color. There are three primary colors—red, blue, and yellow—from which all other colors are produced. Secondary colors are formed from the mixture of two primary colors: red and yellow make orange; yellow and blue make green; blue and red make violet. There are six tertiary colors, made by combining a primary and an adjacent secondary and violet make red-violet; violet and blue make violet-blue; blue and green make blue-green; green and yellow make yellow-green; yellow and orange make yellow-orange; orange and red make red-orange. The organization of these hues into a visual scheme, known as the color wheel, dates from the eighteenth century, though the underlying concepts were developed by Sir Isaac Newton in the seventeenth century.

(Value)

Two important variables affecting color are the amount of light that is reflected and the purity of the color. When mixing black and white, artists can create a continuum of grays.

The term “value” is often used when discussing the lightness or darkness of a color or of gray. Values in an artwork may be primarily dark or primarily light or may be contrasting from dark to light. The artist’s use of value contributes to the expressive quality of the artwork. In mixing colors, artists create a lighter hue by adding white to the color. Adding white to red, for example, makes a lighter red or pink. Artists create darker hues by adding black to the color. Adding black to red, for example, makes a dark red. A few words about black and white are necessary at this point. Black and white are not hues; they are called neutrals.

(Intensity)

Intensity refers to the brightness or purity of a color. Equal parts of two complements, such as red and green, will produce a dull, muddy brown tone.

The unmixed primary colors, being pure in color, are generally considered to be the most intense colors. If pure colors are mixed, they become less intense. Adding black or gray to a color will reduce its intensity. Adding a color to its complement lowers the intensity of the color, making it more dull or neutral in tone.

(Color Schemes)

Artists often use specific color schemes to produce particular visual or emotional effects. Thus, colors do not have a fixed or immutable character or value.

In the nineteenth century, scientists discovered the relativity of color; they determined that a given shade of red will look brighter or darker, more or less intense, depending on what other (similar or contrasting) colors are placed next to it.

(Warm and Cool)

In discussing art and color, we often speak of warm colors and cool colors. By employing contrasts of warm and cool colors, artists can create a sense of movement as the viewer’s eyes move over the surface of the artwork.

These color associations are culturally constructed and are not absolute. In the context of Western art, warm colors include red, orange, and yellow and are referred to as such because we associate them with the warmth of the sun, the heat of a roaring fire, or the dry grass of a late summer day. Cool colors—green, blue, and violet—remind us of cool forests, mountain lakes, and snow. Artists often use warm and cool colors to create space in artworks. Warm colors seem to advance toward the viewer while cool colors appear to recede.

(Local/Optical/Arbitrary)

Color may be local, arbitrary, or optical. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, artists have come to use arbitrary color schemes more and more often.

Local color refers to the “true” color of an object or area as seen in normal daylight, irrespective of the effects of distance or reflections from other objects. For instance, in a work using local color, a grassy field would be green despite the fact that it may, in reality, appear bluish from a distance. Optical color refers to the effect that special lighting has on the color of objects. Consider how colors change in moonlight, at daybreak, in candlelight, or in artificial lighting. Artists who use arbitrary color choose colors for their emotional or aesthetic impact.

(Texture)

Texture refers to how things feel or how we think they would feel if touched. Artists who work in three-dimensional media exploit the textural qualities of their chosen material whether it is stone, wood, metal, or some other substance.

From a young age, we explore the surfaces of things and store away these tactile experiences in our memory. When we see new objects or artworks, we call upon our previous experiences to determine the quality of the surface texture. In the context of art, we make reference to two kinds of texture: actual and visual. Some artists use actual textures in their art. For example, a ceramic artist may create an actual texture on the surface of a pot or plate. In collages, assemblages, or masks, artists may use yarn, rope, shiny paper, shells, and other natural or manufactured materials to create actual textural effects.

(Visual Texture)

Artists who work in two-dimensional media create visual texture—an illusion of a textured surface— in their artwork. In addition to using the aforementioned techniques to create visual texture, painters can create actual texture with their brushstrokes.

For example, an artist may wish to simulate the actual texture of a straw hat, a glass vase, or an orange. Textures may be created by using patterns of lines or shapes that suggest texture. An artist can use the contrast of light and dark on a surface to create a texture that appears rough. Conversely, the absence of such a contrast will evoke a smooth texture. Shiny surfaces appear to reflect light while matte surfaces appear soft and dull.

(Composition)

Composition refers to the artist’s organization of the elements of art, whether in two- or three-dimensional works. In the case of architecture, composition is a word used to describe the organization of these elements in space.

When speaking of a painting, the composition refers to the arrangement of these elements on the picture plane.

(Rhythm)

Rhythm is the principle that we associate with movement or pattern. The artist directs the movement of our eye through the use of repeated elements.

Artists create a sense of movement or rhythm in their artwork through the repetition of elements such as line, shape, color, and texture. The rhythm of a composition can cause the viewer’s eye to move rhythmically across and around the composition. Some rhythms flow smoothly, while others are more jarring.

(Motif and Pattern)

Motif and pattern are two aspects of repetition. Checkerboards offer an example of a regular pattern.

A motif is a single element of a pattern. For example, in a quilt design, one or more motifs are repeated to create an overall pattern. A pattern involves the repetition of certain elements—color or line—or motifs within a work of art. Many patterns feature regular repetition. Shapes or motifs may be repeated in a number of ways to create regular patterns. Some kind of grid system will underlie a regular pattern.

Balance

Balance refers to the equal distribution of visual weight in a work of art. There are a number of techniques that artists use to create balance

(Symmetrical Balance)

The easiest to comprehend is symmetrical balance—a balance achieved when elements of the composition are repeated exactly on both sides of the central axis. To avoid the rigidity and monotony that may accompany a symmetrical composition, many artists employ approximate symmetry.

If you fold a paper in half vertically and one side of the centerfold is a mirror image of the other side of the centerfold, then you have an example of symmetrical balance. Many formal styles of architecture make use of symmetry with columns, wings, and windows arrayed equally on either side of the central entrance. Artworks in which the central axis is horizontal and equal visual weight is placed above and below that axis also exhibit symmetrical balance.

(Approximate Symmetry)

In this kind of balance, shapes or objects are slightly varied on either side of the central axis. The artist may also include variations in the color, detail, or position of the shapes to achieve this effect

(Asymmetrical Balance)

Asymmetrical balance is a visual balance that is achieved through the organization of unlike objects. Similarly, an artist may create balance by placing the heavier, more solid object close to the center of the artwork while placing smaller objects farther away from the center.

Even though asymmetrical balance may appear to be more informal than symmetrical balance, it is actually a more complex compositional task. There are several ways that asymmetrical balance can be achieved. The first is by the position of objects. Think of two people of unequal weight on a seesaw. To maintain a balance, the lighter person must sit far out on the end of the seesaw while the heavier person must sit close to the fulcrum.

(Contrast)

Contrast of color, value, shape, size, line, or texture creates interest to the eye. In this way, the artist may guide the viewer to an understanding of meaning

An element that contrasts with the rest of a composition will create a focal point where the eye tends to rest. This focal point appears more dominant, more important than other parts of the composition

(Proportion/Scale)

Proportion refers to the size relationships among the parts of a composition. Artists consider the purpose and place of their art when determining the appropriate scale for the work.

Our sense of proportion is based upon our human scale. Scale refers to the dimensional relation of the parts of a work to the work in its entirety, and can refer to the overall size of an artwork. Size attracts our interest. The vast scale of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel creates a sense of awe. The detail of a tiny painting or of illuminations in medieval manuscripts intrigues us.

Relative Size

Scale also refers to the relative size of elements within the artwork. In some cases, artists intentionally make one person or object in their composition larger to draw our attention to that person or object.

In a naturalistic work, we expect that the relative sizes of the objects depicted will appear as they actually are in life.

Human Proportions

When representing the human face and figure realistically, artists strive to use accurate proportions. However, many artists at different times have altered these proportions to reflect changing ideals of beauty.

The standards for the relationship of the various parts of the human face and body were established nearly 2,500 years ago during the Classical Period of Greek sculpture. The Greeks believed that the human figure was the measure of all things. As a consequence, all structures were designed in proportions relative to human proportions, and specific rules were established. For example, the ideal human figure was determined to be seven and one-half heads high. The features of the human face could be correctly placed according to these rules: the corners of the eyes fall on a line halfway between the chin and the top of the head, the bottom of the nose falls halfway between the chin and the corners of the eyes, and the bottom of the lips falls halfway between the chin and the bottom of the nose.

(Expressive Distortions)

At other times, artists have exaggerated or distorted proportions for an expressive effect. The rejection of notions such as unity and balance is often the very essence of much modern art.

To truly understand how artists manipulate the elements of art and the principles of composition, it is necessary to examine a great many artworks and to analyze how artists create meaning in their artwork through skillful choices and the application of these artistic concepts. Students should keep in mind that many of the elements discussed in the principles of composition section of this guide are more often found in traditional works than in modern artworks.

(2D Processes)

Two-dimensional art processes and techniques are those that are created on a flat plane. This category includes sculpture, other works in mixed media, and environmental art.

They have height and width, but not significant depth. These include drawing, printmaking, painting, photography, and some mixed media. Artworks that have depth as well as height and width and that exist in space are three dimensional.

(Drawing Intro)

Drawing is arguably the most basic of art processes. Drawing tools may be black, colored, or white.

Most of us have been drawing since we could hold some tool and make marks on a surface. The most common drawing media are pencil, pen and ink, charcoal, crayon, and felt-tip pens. Artists can choose from a variety of surfaces upon which to draw. Early artists used walls of rock, and though some artists today continue to draw on walls, most use some kind of paper—from the white paper of common sketchbooks to a wide variety of manufactured and handmade papers. Papers may be smooth or rough, white or in a wide range of colors.

(Line quality)

Drawing is primarily based on the use of line. Each drawing tool or medium has its own unique qualities, and experimenting with a variety of drawing media is a good way to gain an understanding of their similarities and differences.

Lines created by drawing media can vary dramatically in quality. Hard pencils will make thin, light lines while soft pencils will make thicker lines that may vary considerably in value from lighter to very dark. Charcoal is so soft that the color of the paper used will show through in places where the strokes are applied lightly

(Pressure/Shading)

With drawing pencils or charcoals, a change in pressure will cause a change in value. With this technique, the artist creates different values by making a pattern of dots.

More pressure creates darker values; lighter pressure creates lighter values. Shading can also be used to change values. Artists use the techniques of hatching and crosshatching to shade objects and create an illusion of three-dimensionality. Hatching consists of placing lines closely side by side. Crosshatching is a process in which lines are crisscrossed to create shading. Many drawing media can be blended to change their value and enhance shading. Another technique for shading is stippling.

(Stippling/Ink)

The distance between the dots determines how dark the shading will be—the more densely clustered the dots, the darker the shading. But water can be added to make the ink translucent.

When an artist uses ink as a drawing medium, the ink can be thinned to create a wash of lighter value in which the paper shows through to lighten the effect. Undiluted ink is opaque; it is not transparent, and it completely covers the underlying paper.

(Pastels)

Color may be introduced into a drawing with the use of pastels or colored pencils. Colored pencils are more durable than pastels, but like pastels, they may be layered to create blended colors.

The same techniques used with black media are used with colored media. The artist using color must consider the effects of color and line in an artwork. Colored pastels became popular in the 1700s. These soft sticks of color can be readily blended to create delicate tints and shades, and they are particularly popular for portraiture. The major drawback of pastels is that they are very fragile, and pastel drawings must be cared for quite gently. Often, the surface of a pastel drawing is sprayed with a fixative to reduce the risk of smearing.