Water Soluble Vitamins and Carbohydrate Chemistry

a non-protein organic molecule that binds to an enzyme to aid in the transfer of specific functional groups,

coenzyme

usually considered to be the prosthetic group of an enzyme

coenzyme

an organic molecule (_____) that can NOT be synthesized by humans

vitamin; coenzyme

____ ______ ______, which include all B and C vitamins, serve as coenzymes or coenzyme prcursors

water-soluble vitamins

thaimine pyrophosphate (TPP) is an ester of ____ or ______

thamine; vitamin B1

the role of TPP is to serve as a _____ in the _____ of ____-____ ____. it transfers activated _____ group to a different _______

coenzyme; decarboxylation; alpha-keto acids; aldehyde; carbon

TPP is also used in what pathway?

pentose phosphate pathway

sources of thiamine and vitamin B1

beans, peas, grains, meat

lack of vitamin B1 leads to a condition known as ______

beriberi

FMN and FAD are derived from ____ or _____. They function to transfer _____ _____ and are associated with _____ production. FADH2 can produce ____ ATP

riboflavin; vitamin B2; hydrogen atoms; energy; 2

sources of riboflavin and B2

diary, eggs, organ meats

______ and vitamin ____ aide NAD+/NADP+ in ____-_____ reactions to transfer a ____ ____. Sources include _____ and _____

niacin; B3; oxidation-reduction; hydride ion; meats; nuts

coenzyme A is comprised of ______ _____ or vitamin _____ combined with _____ and cysteine to generate ______-___, which transfers _____ _____ ______

pantothenic acid; B5; ATP; CoA-SH; activated acyl groups

deficiency of ____ ____ and ____ ___ are rare as they are found in many foods

pantothenic acid; vitamin B5

lipids are activated via ____-______, which occurs in the _____. and requires the thiol group of ____-____. Activated lipids are called _____ ____-_____.

beta-oxidation; mitochondria; CoA-SH; fatty acyl-CoA

Vitamin B6 is required to transfer _____ groups in the process of ______. ______ ______ (PLP) and ___ _____ require it.

amino; transamination; Pyridoxal phosphate; glycogen synthase

vitamin B6 is required in proportion to _____ intake

protein

PLP transfers an amino group from _____ to _____ to form _______

aspartame; alpha-ketoglutarate; L-Glutamate

______ (aka _____ _____) carries activated carbon dioxide, which is then _____ to a substrate

Biotin; vitamin B7; donated

sources of biotin

from the diet and intestinal bacteria

folic acid and vitamin B12 carry ____ one-carbon groups such as ____, ____, and _____ groups. These do NOT include _____ groups, which are removed by _____ and added by _____

activated; methyl; methylene; formyl; carboxyl; TPP; biotin

sources of folic acid and vitamin B12

green leafy vegetables, fresh fruits, liver

folate deficiency results in ____ and ______ disorders. deficiency in early embryo development has been linked to ___ ____ defects

anemia; neurological; neural tube

vitamin B12 is a coenzyme for ___-___ ___, which is necessary for the production of ______-____. Only ______ can synthesize B12

methylmalonyl-CoA mutase; Succinyl-CoA; microorganisms

Ascorbic acid utilizes vitamin C, which functions as both an _____ and as a coenzyme utilized in _____ and ______ reactions. Acts primarily on _____

antioxidant; oxygenation; hydroxylation; proline

coenzymes that are not vitamins

lipoic acid and coenzyme Q

reduced lipoic acid is a short chain ___ ___ with two _____ groups that functions to transfer ___ ____

fatty acid; sulfhydryl; H+ atoms

coenzyme Q transfers ___ ___ in the mitochondrial _____-_____ reaction

H+ atoms; oxidative-phosphorylation

carbs must become ______ to trap them in the cell

phosphorylated

the smallest monosaccharide is a _____, with ____ C atoms

triose; 3

monosaccharides with the carbonyl group at the C1

aldoses

monosaccharides with the carbonyl group at the C2

ketoses

all monosaccharides with the exception of _________ have one or more chiral carbons

dihydroxyacetone

the epimer of D-mannose occurs at ______

C-2

the epimer of D-galactose occurs at _____

C-4

ketone + alcohol =

hemiketal

aldehyde + alcohol =

hemiacetal

if the OH on teh anomeric carbon is up, it is in the ____ configuration. If it is down, it is in the _____ configuration

beta; alpha

carbohydrates with a free aldehyde or ketone group can reduce ____ to ____, and are therefore called _____ sugars

Cu++; Cu+; reducing

the important reduced forms of monosaccharides are the ____ ____ and the ____ ____

polyhydroxy alcohols; deoxy sugars

the substitution of H for OH group at ____ of galactose and mannose produces ____ or _____, respectively

C6; fucose; rhamnose

the most important deoxy sugar is ____ ______, found in DNA

D-2 deoxyribose

in amino sugars, the ____ group is replaced by _____

OH; NH2

two biologically important amino sugars are _____ and _____ and they are found in ____ and ____

glucosamine; galactosamine; glycoproteins; glycosaminoglycans

glucosamine derivatives are also found in bacterial _____ _____

cell walls

oxidation of ______ of D-glucose yields D-glucuronic acid

C6

D-glucuronic acid and L-iduronic acid are found in are found biologically in ______

glucosaminoglycans

the most important sugar esters that occur in living cells are the ____ ____ and ____ ____ _____. ______ is usually the phosphate donor in these reactions

phosphate esters; nucleoside diphosphate esters; ATP

when two alcohols in sugars react, an ______ is formed. the resulting bond is called a _____ bond.

ether; glycosidic

if a glycosidic bond is with an alcohol or another anomeric carbon, it is called an ____-glycosidic bond

O

if a glycosidic bond is with an amine, it is called a _____-glycosidic bond

N

3 most abundant disaccharides

sucrose, maltose, lactose

if an O glycosidic bond is formed with another alcohol, it will be a _____ disaccharide. if it is formed through an anomeric carbon, it will be a ____ disaccharide

reducing; non-reducing

disaccharide that has a reducing and a non-reducing side and what kind of glycosidic bond it has

lactose; beta 1-4

type of bond in sucrose

alpha 1 -> beta 2

type of bond in trehalose

alpha 1-1

polymers of a single monosaccharide that function in structure and nutrient storage

homopolysaccharides

cellulose is a ____________ composed of ______ in a chain joined by _________ linkages

homopolysaccharide; disaccharide; beta 1-4

microscopic cellulose fibers are aggregates of a variable number of unbranched ______ chains in _____ alignment with each other

polyglucose; parallel

_______ is a linear polymer consisting of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residues joined by _____ linkages

chitin; beta 1-4

in higher animals glycogen granules are most abundant is ____ and _____ cells

liver; muscle

two distinct structures of starch

amylose, amylopectin

_____ is a linear chain structure with all residues linked via _______ glycoside bonds. _____ is a branched-chain structure, with a small number of ______ linkages at various ___ ____ along the chain

amylose; alpha 1-4; amylopectin; alpha 1-6; branch points

structurally, _____ is identical to ____ in all respects except that _____ is more highly branched.

glycogen; amylopectin; glycogen

starch and glycogen have _____ linkages joining ___-glucose units

alhpa 1-4; D

cellulose has _____ linkages joining ___- glucose units

beta 1-4; D

polymers containing more than one type of monosaccharide, found in glycoproteins, glycolipids, and ___________

heteropolysaccharides; glycosaminoglycans

the term ______ is used to refer to a protein/glycosaminoglycan association

proteoglycan

___________ occupy a large volume relative to their mass

glycosaminoglycans

in connective tissue, _____ _____ is the primary component of ground substance

hyaluronic acid

hyaluronic acid is a linear polymer with a disaccharide repeating unit of ___-____ ____ and N-acetyl-___-______. the residues are linked by a ______ bond, and successive disaccharide repeating units are linked by ______ bonds

d-glucuronic acid; D-glucosamine; beta 1-3; beta 1-4

glycosaminoglycans associated with connective tissue matrix

chondroitin and keratan sulfate

prevents the formation of clots in circulating blood and is used as an anticoagulant agent during and after surgery

heparin

heparin is composed of _____ sugars linked by ______ linkages that are highly _____ and contain __-___ residues

4; alpha 1-4; sulfated; N-acetyl

______ ______ is a highly branches structure with a backbone of a linear ___ ____ polymer

cartilage proteoglycan; hyaluronic acid

gridlike network of polysaccharide chains covalently cross-linked to each other via small peptide bridges

peptidoglycan

glycoproteins and glycolipids contain covalently linked oligosaccharides that lack a ___ ____ ____. the covalent linkage to the polypeptide is made via a glycosidic side chain of either _____, ____, _____ (O-linked) or _____ (N-linked)

serially repeating unit; serine, threonine, hydroxylysine; asparagine

the only carbohydrate derivative required in the diet is _____ _____ aka ____ _____

ascorbic acid; vitamin C

alpha amylases hydrolyze _______ alpha 1-4 linkages in ___ and ____.

interior; starch; glycogen

____ _____ begins the digestive process of carbohydrates, but most digestion is the result of _____ _____

salivary amylase; pancreatic amylase

digestion of di and oligosaccharides occurs in the _____ ____

small intestine

4 carbohydrate enzymes found in the small intestine

maltase; sucrase; isomaltase; lactase

only _____ are absorbed, which happens in the _____ ____-

monosaccharides; small intestine

glucose are taken up _____ their concentration gradient via _____, _____ insensitive transport linked to the ____ gradient. This is important in ____ _____ therapy

against; active; insulin; Na+; electrolyte replacement

Fructose is taken up by _____ transport

passive

drug that inhibits the SGLT-2 transporter used for the treatment of type _____ diabetes

invokana; II

three potential causes of carbohydrate intolerance and malabsorption

gastroenteritis, intestinal surgery, lactose intolerance

beans contain ____ ______

undigestible oligosaccharides

glucose transporters can also transport

galactose

in other cell membranes, ____ glucose transporters can be found. their density increases in response to ______

passive; insulin