Developmental Psychology Units 1 & 2

Developmental Theories (Def and 3 types)

Ways to think about the world and development

3 types: Organismic, Mechanistic, Contextual

Organismic Theory

Developmental Theory that says we develop in stages with qualitative changes.

Thoughts, feelings, and even attachment undergo qualitative changes as you develop.

There is a goal to development in the Organismic theory.

Ex. A butterfly develops from egg → caterpillar → butterfly

Mechanistic Theory

Developmental Theory that says we develop like a machine.

No goal to move towards in development.

Ex. Like a ticking clock, we start ticking until we stop

Contextual Theory

Developmental Theory that says context is everything in development. When and where you develop, among other things, is very important in development.

The focus is on what’s happening, where, and when.

Very individual because everyone’s context is different.

ex. only child vs. siblings, city vs. suburbs

Active Development

A part of the Organismic development theory.

Says that development isn’t taught; it’s naturally learned.

Passive Reaction

A part of the Mechanistic development theory.

Says that development happens and we simply react to it.

Operational Definition

Proper definition of terms and concepts to ensure researchers are on the same page.

MUST operationalize concepts: Intensity, how often, etc.

Freudian Fixation

Over or underindulged in one stage or another, you can keep some aspects of that stage

Developmental Theories allow us to:

Describe the situation

Explain why it’s happening

Predict what may happen next

Domains of Development

Cognitive, Social, Physical, Spiritual (?)

These domains are NOT separate from each other; they all interact with each other

Otitis Media

A middle ear infection, most common in children

Symptoms: Snotty nose, Eye drainage, cranky, frequent night waking, unwillingness to lie flat, crying/screaming combined with cold symptoms, drainage from ear, sudden worsening of cold symptoms, fever, but may have zero symptoms

Connection between domains: OM may be a physical infection but it affects their socialization and behavior. They begin to fall behind cognitively in language, don’t bond socially bc they’re cranky due to infection and their ear hurts.

Age-graded influence

When things are bound to happen at roughly a certain age and so can be typically predicted.

Ex. Graduating at 18, license at 17, kindergarten at 5

History graded influence (cohort)

Things happen in a time period that may be different from another time period. The experiences during a given time period can affect your behavior

How people developed in different eras of the world.

Ex. WWII vs. sexual revolution vs. covid

Normative experiences/influence

Experiences that kind of happen to everyone over the course of their development

Nonnormative experiences/development

Experiences that are roughly unique to you

Ex. Getting guitar lessons, getting a pony at 6yrs old

Continuous change

A child going up a slope. There are no “stages” to development and no goal you’re developing towards you kinda just develop without any predicted checkpoints.

Quantitative change

Discontinuous change

A child going up stairs. Development in stages and a goal you develop towards.

Quantitative change, Organismic → Erikson, Freud → Predictable stages

Multidimensional/Multidirectional development

Kids can be affected by others, and they can also affect others.

Kids may make progress in one area and may decline in another. Some things go forward, and some go backwards.

Ethology

A branch of biology with an emphasis on the relevance of environmental contexts.

Seeks to understand the adaptive or survival value of behavior and its evolutionary history

Adjacent to the contextual worldview

Imprinting (Ethology)

The baby and the mother/parents interact, and they form a mutual bond where the baby recognizes what they are, and the parents recognize that this is their child and dedicate themselves to taking care of them.

Imprinting is what happens in the critical period right after birth → Immediately after hatching, they will see and attach themselves to the first moving thing they see.

Ex. Geese, mammals, sheep, etc.

Sensitive/Critical Period

Sensitive periods of time for development, when things can have the biggest impact on development.

Bonding

Human version of imprinting

Babies are handed to their mother, and the physical touch and gazing into each other’s eyes allows the baby to bond to their mother. During short period after birth where babies are attentive and looking to attach

Lifespan perspective

Development is lifelong, Multidimensional/mutidirectional, highly plastic, affected by multiple interacting forces

Ecological Systems Theory/Approach (Lev Vgotsky)

Contextual worldview

Microsystem → Mesosystem → Exosystem → Macrosystem → Chronosystem

Microsystem

Part of Vgotsky’s Ecological Systems Theory

The individual’s immediate surroundings. Your interactions with your friends, your suitemates, family, classmates.

Mesosystem

Part of Vgotsky’s Ecological Systems Theory

The relationships and connections between your microsystems. PTC, friends talking to family, etc.

Exosystem

Part of the Ecological Systems Theory

Environments/social settings that indirectly affect the individual. Not directly part of the setting, but are still influenced by them. Ex. parent's job

Macrosystem

Part of Vgotsky’s Ecological Systems Theory

Values, Ideals, customs, and laws of a particular culture.

Ex. Consent, keeping kosher/halal, death with dignity laws, what’s ok/not ok in your culture

Chronosystem

Part of Vgotsky’s Ecological Systems Theory

Temporal (time) → What happened, when, and how did it affect/influence you → The event may have had a different effect on you due to age/part of your life

Ex. Siblings born when, divorce, covid

Experimental Design

Independent Variable, Dependent Variable, Reliability, Validity

Independent Variable

The variable being changed

Dependent Variable

The variable being measured

Reliability

Consistency (in questions, in grades) could the results be replicated

Validity

Was the experiment measuring what it was supposed to measure

Cross-sectional design

Comparing different cohorts → Cohorts have to match on any influential variable (ex. schooling) → Ex. comparing ppl born in 1960s vs. 1970s

Advantages: Quick, inexpensive, differences in behavior at different points in development can be studied

Disadvantages: No info about past determinants of age related changes, or individual development or developmental process

Cohort

People born at the same time (same year, decade)

Longitudinal Design

Same subjects assessed repeatedly (Same group of ppl over the years)

Advantages: Stability of a behavior can be determined, impact of early events on later behavior can be investigated, differences in behavior at different points in development can be studied

Disadvantages: Cost, subject loss, changes in people (cohorts), inflexibility, test/retest effects

Test/retest effect

If you continuously retake a test, you will get better at the questions/test as you take it

Sequential Design

Combines Cross-sectional and Longitudinal

Advantages: flexible, stability of behavior can be determined, impact of early events on later behavior can be investigated, differences in behavior at diff points in development can be studied

Disadvantages: Cost (most expensive), subject loss, test/retest

Correlational Studies

Correlation does NOT equal causation

Positive/Negative Correlation, No correlation, Correlation coefficient

Naturalistic Observation

Observing people or animals in the most natural context. No interference, just gathering data on the subjects natural lives. (Ex. Jane Goodall & Chimpanzees)

Structured Observation

Done in a lab, constant conditions for all participants

Clinical Interview

Go different directions based on how the individual answers

Structured Interview

Same questions for each participant

Case Study

Unique individuals, unique situations → Studying something on its lonesome or in a small group because it’s so rare/unique

Genie (case study)

Dad kept her tied to a crib/potty seat for 13 years bc he supposedly thought there was something wrong with her mind, not much human interaction at all, her brother took care of her. Never learned to speak or anything. (The forbidden experiment → could she still become a fully functioning human in society → no, she learned very little language and lost it all)

David Reimer

1965 born, 1967 Twin’s was fine, but David’s circumcision went wrong and it burned off his entire penis…

• Kids are born gender neutral and are socialized into being a girl or a boy

• Brian was raised as a boy, David (Brenda) was raised as a girl (surgery for genitals to look more like a girl’s), played with dolls, wore dresses and everything

• All of this was a lie. Mother’s glowing reviews of raising him as a girl were incorrect, Brian and David had to be interviewed too but he was  in fact miserable and always wanted to be a boy and always wanted Brian’s things.

• At this time, more intersex children were born

  • Intersex children were typically raised as girls because it was “easier”

Ethical Issues

Deception Research → Ex. Milgram study (risked psychological harm)

Research with Children

Research with individuals who are cognitively impaired

Research with animals → Ex. Harry Harlow Monkeys

Harry Harlow’s Monkeys

Harlow’s isolation-reared monkeys exhibited poor parenting skills as adults → monkeys who were reared in isolation did not care for their infants and were abusive

Contact Comfort is incredibly important in the development of attachment in primates

Rights of Research Participants

Protection from harm, Informed consent/assent, privacy, knowledge of results, beneficial treatments

Psychoanalytic Perspective

People move and develop through stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the person’s ability to learn, get along with others, and cope with anxiety (Freud)

Freud’s Psychosexual theory

How parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development (oral → anal → phallic → latency → genital)

Also Id, Ego, Superego I believe

Oral stage

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory → Birth - 1 year

If oral needs aren’t met through sucking from a breast or bottle, the individual may develop habits such as thumb sucking, fingernail biting, overeating, or smoking.

Anal stage

Freud’s psychosexual Theory → 1 - 3 years

Toddlers and preschoolers enjoy holding and releasing urine and feces. If parents toilet train before children are ready or make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear in the form of extreme orderliness or disorder.

Phallic stage

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory → 3 - 6 years

As preschoolers take pleasure in genital stimulation. Freud’s Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls arise: Children feel a sexual desire for the other-sex parent. To avoid punishment, they give up this desire and adopt the same-sex parent’s characteristics and values. As a result, the superego is formed, and children feel guilty when they violate its standards.

Latency stage

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory → 6 - 11 years

Sexual instincts die down, and the superego strengthens as children acquire new social values from adults and same-sex peers.

Genital stage

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory → Adolescence and on

With puberty, sexual impulses reappear. Successful development during earlier stages leads to marriage, mature sexuality, and child rearing.

Id

Biological Needs and Desires

Ego

Rationality; meant to redirect impulses from the Id in acceptable ways

Superego

Your conscience of right and wrong

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

In addition to mediating between id and superego, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make an active, contributing member of society (Trust v. mistrust and on) (Our relationship with our environment and with others affects how we develop)

Basic Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory → Birth - 1 year

Infants gain a sense of trust or confidence in the goodness of the world from warm and responsive care, but a sense of mistrust if neglected or handled harshly

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory → 1 - 3 years

Children want to make their own decisions with their new mental and motor skills. Parents can foster autonomy by permitting free choice and not forcing or shaming the child.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory → 3 - 6 years

By playing pretend, children gain insight into who they can become. Initiative develops when parents support a child’s sense of purpose; guilt develops when parents demand a lot of self-control.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory → 6 - 11 years

At school, children learn to work with others. Inferiority develops when negative experiences at home, at school, or with peers lead to feelings of incompetence.

Identity vs. Role Confusion → Adolescence

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

By exploring values and vocational goals, young people form a personal identity. The negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory → Early adulthood

Young adults establish intimate relationships. Because of earlier disappointments, some adults become more closed off, can’t form close bonds, and feel isolated.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory → Middle adulthood

Generativity means giving to the next generation through child-rearing, caring for others, or productive work. One who fails at these things feels an absence of meaningful accomplishment.

Integrity vs. Despair

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory → Old age

Integrity results from a fulfilled life that was worth living when it happened. Older people who are dissatisfied with their lives fear death.

Behaviorism

Study of directly observable events (stimuli and responses)…? Includes classical and operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

When an individual or animal is conditioned to associate a neutral stimulus with another stimulus that produces a reflexive response. After conditioning, that original neutral stimulus should be able to trigger the conditioned behavior/response.

(ex. Dog, with bell and food; Little Albert with mice and loud noise)

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

Frequency of behavior can be increased through a reinforcer (food, praise, etc.), and decreased through a punishment (disapproval, withdrawal of privileges)

Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura most influential)

Emphasizes modeling, aka imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of development. (Kids’ behaviors will model/imitate what they see at home) → Calls it a Social Cognitive Approach

Self Efficacy

The belief that their own abilities and characteristics will help them succeed → As individuals acquire attitudes, values, and convictions about themselves, they control their own learning and behavior.

Applied Behavior Analysis

Careful observation of individual behavior and related environmental events, followed by systematic changes in those events based on procedures of conditioning and modeling

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory

The idea that children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world. → Adaptation is significant in Piaget’s theory due to his background in biology

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory → 0 - 2 years

Infants explore the world using their senses and actions. They “think” by using their eyes, ears, hands, and mouth. As a result, they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems, such as pulling a lever to hear the sound in a music box.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory → 2 - 7 years

Children begin to develop language and develop the ability to use symbols and engage in pretend play, but still struggle with logical thinking.

Concrete Operational

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory → 7 - 11 years

Children’s reasoning becomes logical and more organized, and they correct earlier cognitive errors. Begin to understand conservation and reversibility. They, however, only think in a logical and organized manner in situations where they have concrete information.

Formal Operational

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory → 11 years on

The ability to think abstractly and hypothetically develops. No longer need all the information and real world circumstances to think logically.

Information Processing

From the time information is presented to the senses at input, until it emerges as a behavioral response at output, information is actively coded, transformed and organized

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience

Studies the relationships between changes in the brain and the developing person’s cognitive processing and behavior patterns. → How does genetic makeup combine with different experiences at various ages to influence development and organization of the brain.

Developmental Social Neuroscience

Studies the relationship between changes in the brain and emotional and social development.

Imprinting

Some non-human animals will form an attachment to the first living thing they see after they’re born (for survival, happens during critical period).

Critical Period

A specific time in development when the individual is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs the support of an appropriately stimulating environment. → A specific time in development when exposure to certain experiences is necessary for proper development.

Sensitive Period

A time that is biologically optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences (Development can occur later, but it is harder to induce)

Evolutionary Developmental Psychology

It seeks to understand the adaptive values of species-wide cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age. → Aims to understand the person-environment system.

Sociocultural Theory (Vgotsky)

Focuses on how culture is transmitted to the next generation

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

Encodes the templates for proteins. Double Helix (discovered by Rosalind Franklin; Watson and Crick took credit)

Genes

A segment of DNA along the length of the chromosome → also protein-coding genes

Chromosomes

Made up of DNA. Store and transmit genetic information from both parents. 23 from mom, 23 from dad.

Regulator Gene

Modify the instructions given by the protein-coding genes, greatly complicating their genetic impact

Gamete

A gamete is a sex cell → Sperm or Ovum → contains 23 chromosomes → Baby made when gametes combine

Mitosis

Cells repair themselves to some degree (cells divide and make copies of themselves)

Meiosis

How gametes are formed → Cell division process that halves the number of chromosomes normally present in the body cells → When sperm and ovum unite at conception, you get a zygote which has 46 chromosomes.

Hayflick Number

How many times your cells can divide

Boy or Girl?

22 of 23 pairs of chromosomes are matching pairs (autosomes → not sex cell). The 23rd pair consists of sex chromosomes.

• Females → XX pair

• Males → XY pair

Allele

Each form of a gene is called an allele

Homozygous

If we line up the genes on the chromosomes, you will have one from your mom and one from your dad. If the alleles on the chromosomes match, you are homozygous.

• If alleles from both parents are alike, the child is homozygous and will display the inherited trait

Heterozygous

If we line up the genes on the chromosomes, you will have one from your mom and one from your dad. If the alleles within the chromosomes DON’T match, you are heterozygous.

• If the alleles differ, the child is heterozygous, and the relationship between the alleles influences the phenotype (trait displayed).