AP Bio Final

Elements

Substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means, e.g., Oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N).

Trace Elements

Elements required by an organism in very small quantities, e.g., iron (Fe), iodine (I), and copper (Cu).

Protons, Neutrons, Electrons

Subatomic particles; protons are positively charged, neutrons are uncharged, and electrons are negatively charged.

Compounds

Consist of two or more elements held together by chemical bonds, e.g., ionic, covalent, or hydrogen bonds.

Water

The Versatile Molecule:Exhibits special properties due to hydrogen bonds, e.g., cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, high heat capacity, and expansion on freezing.

Acids and Bases

Influence reactions based on the solution's acidity or alkalinity, measured using a pH scale.

Organic Molecules

Molecules containing carbon; important for life due to their versatility in forming various compounds.

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds categorized as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides, serving as energy sources and structural components.

Proteins

Essential for structure, function, and regulation; composed of amino acids with unique properties based on side chain polarity.

Lipids

Consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; examples include triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids, serving various functions in cells.

Nucleic Acids

Molecules made up of nucleotides, such as DNA and RNA, containing genetic information and essential for protein synthesis.

Cell Surface Markers

Glycoproteins and glycolipids exposed on the extracellular surface of cells, involved in cell recognition and adhesion.

Nucleus

Largest organelle in a cell, contains DNA organized into chromosomes, nucleolus for rRNA synthesis and ribosome assembly.

Ribosomes

Sites of protein synthesis, composed of large and small subunits, can be free-floating or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Continuous channel providing support and transportation, rough ER with ribosomes, smooth ER synthesizing lipids and detoxifying.

Golgi Complex

Modifies, processes, and sorts proteins synthesized by ribosomes, packages products into vesicles for distribution.

Mitochondria

Power stations converting organic molecules into ATP, with inner and outer membranes, cristae, and matrix.

Lysosomes

Contain digestive enzymes to break down organelles and debris, essential for apoptosis.

Vacuoles

Fluid-filled sacs storing various substances in plant cells.

Peroxisomes

Organelles detoxifying substances, producing hydrogen peroxide.

Cytoskeleton

Network of protein fibers determining cell shape, including microtubules and microfilaments.

Cilia and Flagella

Structures with locomotive properties in single-celled organisms.

Plant Cells

Differ from animal cells with a cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole, and absence of centrioles.

Passive Transport

Movement of substances across membranes without energy, including simple and facilitated diffusion.

Osmosis

Movement of water across membranes, influenced by tonicity and water potential.

Active Transport

Movement against the concentration gradient requiring energy, like the sodium-potassium pump.

Endocytosis

Process of engulfing substances by the cell membrane, including pinocytosis, phagocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Exocytosis

Process of expelling substances from the cell by fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane.

Bioenergetics

Study of how cells obtain and use energy.

Enzymes

Biological catalysts speeding up reactions by lowering activation energy, with specificity and active sites.

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and enzyme regulation influencing reaction rates.

Allosteric Inhibitor

An inhibitor that binds to an allosteric site on an enzyme, causing a change in the enzyme's shape and preventing it from functioning at the active site.

Noncompetitive Inhibition

A type of inhibition where the inhibitor binds to a site other than the active site, distorting the enzyme shape and hindering its catalytic activity.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

A molecule consisting of adenosine bonded to three phosphates, serving as the primary energy carrier in cells.

Cellular Respiration

The process of breaking down sugar to produce ATP, occurring in the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration) or in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic respiration).

Photosynthesis

The process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy, involving the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen in the presence of sunlight.

Chloroplast

Organelles found in plant cells where photosynthesis takes place, containing structures like the stroma, grana, and thylakoids.

Glycolysis

The initial stage of cellular respiration where glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid, producing ATP and NADH.

Acetyl-CoA

A molecule formed from pyruvic acid during aerobic respiration, entering the Krebs cycle to generate more ATP.

Krebs Cycle

Also known as the citric acid cycle, a series of reactions in cellular respiration that produce ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

The final stage of aerobic respiration involving the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis to produce ATP from NADH and FADH2.

Glycolysis

The process of breaking down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP, yielding two ATP molecules.

Fermentation

A metabolic process that occurs in the absence of oxygen, producing either lactic acid or ethanol as byproducts, commonly used by yeast cells and some bacteria.

Cell Communication

The process by which cells detect and respond to environmental signals, crucial for coordinating activities within an organism.

Signal Transduction

The transmission of external signals into the cell, involving specific receptors, signal transduction pathways, and cellular responses.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of stable internal conditions within an organism, regulated by feedback mechanisms like negative and positive feedback pathways.

Cell Cycle

The life cycle of a cell, consisting of interphase (growth phase) and mitosis (cell division), regulated by checkpoints and proteins like cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs).

Mitosis

The process of cellular division involving four stages - prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase - resulting in the formation of two identical daughter cells.

Gregor Mendel

Known as the Father of Genetics, Mendel discovered the principles of heredity through experiments with pea plants, including the Law of Dominance, Law of Segregation, and Law of Independent Assortment.

Haploid

A cell with a single set of chromosomes (n), while a diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes (2n), with homologous chromosomes containing the same genes in the same locations.

Linked Genes

Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together, violating the Law of Independent Assortment, leading to the formation of recombinants during recombination events.

Recombination Frequency

The percentage of recombination determined by adding up recombinants and dividing by the total number of offspring.

Linkage Mapping

Mapping of linkage groups where each map unit equals 1 percent recombination, based on the frequency of crossing-over between linked alleles.

Sex-Linked Traits

Traits carried on sex chromosomes, with most found on the X chromosome and expressed differently in males and females.

Barr Bodies

Inactive X chromosomes in female cells due to X-inactivation during embryonic development.

Inheritance Patterns

Include incomplete dominance, codominance, polygenic inheritance, and non-nuclear inheritance through mitochondria.

Pedigrees

Special family trees showing genetic traits, helping determine inheritance patterns like recessive, dominant, or sex-linked.

Meiosis

The process of producing gametes involving two rounds of cell division, meiosis I and meiosis II, to create genetic variation.

DNA Structure

DNA consists of nucleotides with a sugar-phosphate backbone forming a double helix, with specific base pairing rules.

Genome Structure

All DNA for a species is its genome, organized into chromosomes wrapped around histones in euchromatin or heterochromatin.

DNA Replication

The process of copying DNA involving unwinding, replication fork formation, leading and lagging strands, and enzymes like helicase and polymerase.

Helicase

Enzyme that unwinds the double helix into two strands.

DNA Polymerase

Enzyme that adds nucleotides to an existing DNA strand.

Ligase

Enzyme that brings together Okazaki fragments during DNA replication.

Topoisomerase

Enzyme that cuts and rejoins the DNA helix to relieve tension.

RNA primase

Enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of RNA primers during DNA replication.

Transcription

Process of making an RNA copy of a DNA code.

Translation

Process of making a protein from an RNA template.

RNA

Single-stranded nucleic acid with ribose sugar and uracil base.

mRNA

Temporary RNA copy of a DNA recipe sent to ribosomes.

rRNA

RNA component of ribosomes.

tRNA

RNA that brings amino acids to ribosomes during translation.

Exons

Coding regions in mRNA.

Introns

Noncoding regions in mRNA.

Splicing

Process of removing introns from pre-mRNA.

Operon

Functional unit of DNA in bacteria with structural, promoter, operator, and regulatory genes.

Mutation

Error in the genetic code.

Point mutations

Mutations involving a single nucleotide base change.

Recombinant DNA

DNA created by combining DNA from different sources.

PCR

Laboratory technique to amplify DNA.

Natural Selection

Mechanism of evolution based on differential reproductive success.

Sexual Selection

Females choosing to mate with males based on specific traits like a large and beautiful tail.

Genetic Drift

Random changes in the genetics of a population, not driven by natural selection, often due to bottleneck or founder effects.

Gene Flow

Movement of genes between different populations of the same species through migration.

Directional Selection

A type of natural selection where one extreme phenotype is favored.

Stabilizing Selection

Selection that eliminates extreme traits in a population.

Artificial Selection

Humans directly influencing the variation in other species.

Reproductive Isolation

Necessary for the formation of different species, preventing interbreeding.

Divergent Evolution

Species evolving in different directions due to varied environmental pressures.

Punctuated Equilibrium

Rapid divergent evolution following a period of stability.

Pre-zygotic Barriers

Prevent fertilization between different species.

Post-zygotic Barriers

Hinders the ability of hybrid organisms to produce offspring.

Convergent Evolution

Unrelated species developing similar traits due to similar selective pressures.

Allopatric Speciation

Population isolation by a geographic barrier leading to speciation.

Hardy-Weinberg Law

States that genotype frequencies in a population remain constant over time.

Endotherms

Animals generating body heat internally through metabolism.

Instinct

Inborn, unlearned behavior in animals.

Imprinting

Offspring accepting the first moving object they see as their mother.

Circadian Rhythms

Internal clocks in animals and plants regulating daily cycles.

Pheromones

Chemical signals within a species affecting behavior.