Connecting science to vet tech practice and Chemistry's role in vet care

Sem 1 Course 4

Atom

The smallest component of an element that retains all chemical properties of that element, building block of matter

Biological Hierarchy

Method of organizing living things based on emergent properties. Atom → molecule → cell → tissue → organ → organism → population → ecosystem → biosphere

Biology

The study of life, including anatomy and physiology. The scientific foundation of all vet med.

Biosphere

All living things on Earth and the ecosystems they depend on

Cell

The fundamental unit of all living organisms. The smallest structure that can carry out life processes.

Control Group

A group that continues under existing conditions and doesn’t receive experimental treatment in research studies

Controlled Variables

Factors or conditions in an experiment that don’t change and are kept the same between groups

Deductive Reasoning

Using general principles or broad observations to predict specific outcomes or make specific conclusions

Dependent Variable

The result or outcome you measure in response to changes in the independent variable (ex: pain score in response to a pain med)

Ecosystem

All living and nonliving factors in an area and how they interact w/ each other

Emergent Properties

New properties that appear at each level of biological hierarchy due to increasing complexity.

Experimental Group

A group exposed to the factor being tested in an experiment

Hypothesis

A proposed explanation for a phenomenon or problem being studied, written as a testable statement

Independent Variable

The variable that’s purposefully changed in an experiment; what differs between the control and experimental groups (ex: pain medication)

Inductive Reasoning

Taking specific observations and drawing broad conclusions or general principles from them

Inference

A conclusion drawn from an observation based on previous experiences or understanding

Molecule

Two or more atoms bonded together

Observation

A statement that simply describes a phenomenon you can see, hear, measure, or detect without interpretation

Organ

Multiple tissues working together to perform specific functions; distinct structure with specialized roles

Organism

A complete living thing made up of organ systems working together

Peer Review

The process of subjecting experiments and their results to scrutiny by other scientists in the same field before publication

Population

A group of organisms of the same species that share an ecosystem and can potentially interbreed

Primary Literature

Original research articles published by the scientists who carried out and verified the research

Qualitative Data

Data that describes observations or characteristics using descriptive, non-numerical info (ex: qualities - the patient is lethargic)

Quantitative Data

Observations that are made or measured using numbers (ex: quantity - the temp is 102.7)

Scientific Method

An organized process for solving problems including: making observations, asking questions, forming hypotheses, making predictions, designing experiments, collecting data, and drawing conclusions

Secondary Literature

Articles that interpret, simplify, and summarize primary literature, such as review articles and clinical summaries

Systems Biology

The study of organisms and how they interact with their environment and other organisms, focusing on how changes in one part affect others.

Tertiary Literature

General information sources like textbooks, blogs, and videos that distill information from primary and secondary literature

Tissue

Similar cell types grouped together to perform a common function

Variable

A factor, condition, or relationship that can be changed in an experiment

Metabolism

All the chemical reactions in the body that convert nutrients into energy and building materials, and that breakdown waste products

Homeostasis

Living things keep their internal conditions stable, such as temperature, fluid balance, heart rate, and blood glucose so their bodies can function properly

Matter (chemistry)

Anything that takes up space and has mass, made of elements

Elements (chemistry)

Pure substances that cannot be broken down further - made of atoms and are the building blocks of matter

Nucleus (atom)

The center of the atom, containing protons and neutrons

Proton

Item with a positive charge within the nucleus of an atom. The number of protons in an element tell you what element it is.

Neutron

Item with no charge within the nucleus of an atom. Different amounts of neutrons in elements create isotopes.

Isotopes

Slightly different forms of the same element depending on how many neutrons are in it.

Orbitals

Where the electrons move around outside the nucleus of an atom

Electrons

Items with a negative charge around the outside of the nucleus of an atom - determine how atoms join to form compounds

Sodium (Na)

• Main extracellular ion that controls fluid balance and nerve + muscle signals

• Abnormal amount can indicate dehydration, shock, kidney dz, Addison’s dz

• Guides IV fluid selection

Potassium (K)

• Main intracellular ion, essential for heart rhythm and muscle function

• High K is risk for arrhythmia (blocked cats, Addison’s)

• Low K can cause weakness, often seen in CKD cats

• Often added to IV fluids

Chloride (Cl)

• Works with sodium, important to acid-base balance

• Helps dx metabolic acidosis or alkalosis (vomiting, diarrhea, kidney dz)

• Included in most fluid therapy

Calcium (Ca)

• Needed for bones, blood clotting, muscle contraction, nerve signaling

• Low Ca = eclampsia, pancreatits, GI dz

• High Ca = Cancer, kidney dz, Addison’s

• Used in emergency stabilization

Magnesium (Mg)

• Supports neuromuscular function + many enzymes

• Low Mg = tremors, arrhythmias

• Important in critical care (DKA, refeeding, and obstetric cases)

• Often supplemented

Bicarbonate (HCO3 -)

• Main buffer that maintains acid-base balance

• Low = metabolic acidosis (DKA, kidney dz)

• Helps guide blood-gas interpretation and fluid therapy choice

Phosphorus (P)

• Essential for ATP (energy), bones, cell function

• High P = kidney dz, urinary obstruction

• Low P = refeeding syndrome, diabetic crisis

• Important in CKD diets + fluid therapy

Iron (Fe)

• Needed for hemoglobin and O2 transport

• Low = iron deficiency anemia (chronic blood loss)

• Helps differentiate anemia types in CBC interpretation

Zinc (Zn)

• Supports skin health, healing, immune function

• Low = poor wound healing

• Toxicity = hemolytic anemia

Copper (Cu)

• Necessary for enzyme reactions, connective tissue, liver function

• Monitored in breeds with copper storage liver disease (Bedlington Terrier’s)

• Helps diagnose metabolic liver issues

Hydrogen (H)

• Determines pH and acidity

• Not measured directly

• Blood gas results rely on H+ concentration to diagnose acidosis/alkalosis

Oxygen (O)

• Required for metabolism and respiration

• Measured as SpO2 (% of oxygenated hemoglobin in the blood) or PaO2 (how much O2 is in arterial blood) in anesthesia, critical or respiratory cases

Carbon (C)

• Structural element in all organic molecules

• Shows up as CO2 or bicarbonate on chemistry panels as part of acid-base evaluation

Nitrogen (N)

• Component of amino acids and waste products

• Measured as BUN (blood urea nitrogen) to assess kidney filtration and hydration status

Iodine (I)

• Needed for thyroid hormones

• Checked in thyroid panels

• Radioactive iodine (I-131) treats feline hyperthyroidism

Sulfur (S)

• Part of key amino acids + some drugs

• Found in sulfonamide antibiotics

• Sulfur-containing amino acids matter in diet, skin, and coat health

Selenium (Se)

• Antioxidant and muscle/heart support

• Deficiency causes white-muscle disease in livestock

• Supplemented in diets and sometimes given parentally

• Toxicity possible

Chemical bonds result from…

The charges on two atoms interacting with each other

An atom is unstable when…

It’s outer electron shell is not completely full

Ionic bond

When one atom gives it’s electrons to another atom

• This gives the atoms charges, turning them to ions

• Losing an electron = positive charge (cation), gaining = negative (anion)

• Positives and negatives attract, so they stick together

• Creates compounds that easily dissolve in water

Covalent bond

Atoms share electrons instead of giving them away

• Ex: Carbon and oxygen need 8 electrons in their outer shell, carbon has 4 and oxygen has 6. When one carbon and two oxygens come together, the electrons can be shared so each atom has 8 electrons in the outer shell (forms CO2)

• A covalently bonded atom is called a molecule

• Determines whether drugs are fat-soluble or water-soluble

• Affects how medications cross cell membranes

Polar covalent bonds

When the electrons are more attracted to one type of atom than the other

• This makes some areas of the molecule more positive and some more negative

• Ex: H2O, O is -, H is +, making it a polar molecule

• When polar molecules are near other polar molecules, the negative side of one is attracted to the positive side of the other (hydrogen bond)

Hydrogen bond

Weak attractions between hydrogen and electronegative atoms

• Critical to protein-medications like insulin bc it helps them keep their shape

• Easily broken by heat - explains refrigeration needs

• Determine 3-dimensional shape of bio molecules

Aspects of ionic bonds for vet med

• Dissolve completely in water

• Break apart into charged particles

• Mix readily with bodily fluids

• Distribute evenly through tissues

• Stable at room temp, can be stored on shelves

Aspects of covalent bonds for vet med

• Antibiotics, pain meds, anesthetics

• Solubility depends on polarity (polar dissolves in water, non-polar needs oil based solvents)

• Most are stable at room temp

• Some need light-protected storage

Aspects of hydrogen bonds for vet med

• Insulin, vaccines, growth hormones, some abx

• Complex 3D shapes maintained by weak bonds

• Shape creates function

• Easily damaged by temp or pH changes

• REFRIGERATE!

• Protect from temp swings

Anion

Ion with a negative charge

Cation

Ion with a positive charge

Compound

A molecule with two or more different elements (H20, CO2)

Enzymes

Special proteins that act as biological catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions without being used up in the process

Activation energy

Amount of energy needed to start a chemical reaction (lowered by enzymes)

Metabolism

All the chemical reactions that keep an animal alive

Enzyme specificity

• Each enzyme works with specific substrates (molecules)

• Like a key to one lock

• Helps predict effect medications

Enzyme optimal conditions

• Enzymes work best at specific temps and pH

• Is why homeostasis is important, and disease states can affect enzyme function, thus how quick medications work or healing occurs

Factors that affect enzyme activity

• Temp, pH

• Enzyme inhibitor (meds that function to inhibit enzymes)

• Enzyme inducer (meds that function to increase enzyme activity)

Active site

Where an enzyme binds to a substrate

ALT enzyme test tells…

• Normal = liver cell metabolism

• Elevated = Liver cell damage

• Most specific liver enzyme

AST enzyme test says…

• Normal = multiple organ metabolism

• Elevated = liver or muscle damage

• Less specific than ALT

Amylase enzyme test says…

• Normal = starch digestion

• Elevated = pancreatic inflammation

• Often elevated in pancreatitis

Lipase enzyme test says…

• Normal = Fat digestion

• Elevated = Pancreatic damage

• More specific than Amylase

Ck enzyme test says…

• Normal = Muscle energy production

• Elevated = Muscle cell damage

• Indicates muscle injury

ALP enzyme test says…

• Normal = Bone + liver metabolism

• Elevated = Liver disease, bone growth

• Age-dependent normal values