Unit 0: Psychology

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it; often referred to as the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon.​

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's preconceptions, leading to statistical errors.​

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias characterized by an individual's belief that they are more accurate or capable than they actually are.​

Peer Reviewers

Experts in a specific field who evaluate the quality, validity, and relevance of research before it is published.​

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory, that guides scientific investigations.​

Falsifiable

A characteristic of a hypothesis or theory that allows it to be disproven by experimental or observational evidence.​

Operational Definition

A clear, precise, and measurable definition of a variable for the purpose of a specific study.​

Replication

The process of repeating a research study to determine if the original findings can be reliably reproduced.​

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event to explore causation and find underlying principles.​

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to identify overall trends.​

Naturalistic Observation

Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference to gather data on behavior.​

Survey

A research method involving the use of questionnaires or interviews to gather data from a large number of respondents.​

Experimental Methodology

A research approach that involves manipulating one variable to determine its effect on another, establishing cause-and-effect relationships.​

Non-Experimental Methodology

Research methods that do not involve manipulation of variables, such as observational studies, surveys, and case studies.​

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables, indicating how one may predict the other.​

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index (ranging from -1 to +1) that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.​

Scatterplot

A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables, with data points plotted on a two-dimensional graph.​

Regression Toward the Mean

The phenomenon where extreme or unusual scores or behaviors tend to fall back toward the average over time.​

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process.​

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or variable being tested

Quantitative Research

Research that involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to identify patterns and test hypotheses.​

Qualitative Research

Research that involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences.​

Likert Scales

A psychometric scale commonly used in surveys to measure attitudes or opinions, typically ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree."​

Institutional Review

A process by which research proposals are evaluated to ensure ethical standards are met, often conducted by an Institutional Review Board (IRB).​

Informed Consent

The process of providing potential research participants with all relevant information about a study, ensuring they understand and voluntarily agree to participate.​

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a data set.​

Mean

The arithmetic average of a set of numbers, calculated by dividing the sum of all values by the number of values.​

Median

The middle value in a data set when the numbers are arranged in ascending or descending order.​

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that a particular score is above.​

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.​

Self-Report Bias

Bias that occurs when participants inaccurately report their behaviors or feelings, often due to social desirability or recall issues.​

Population

The entire group of individuals or instances about whom we hope to learn.​

Sample

A subset of individuals from the population, selected to participate in a study.​

Sampling Bias

A bias that occurs when the sample is not representative of the population, leading to skewed results.​

Random Sample

A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.​

Convenience Sampling

Choosing individuals who are easiest to reach or readily available to participate in a study.​

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole.​

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, serving as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.​

Independent Variable(s)

The factor(s) that are manipulated by the researcher to observe their effect on the dependent variable.​

Dependent Variable(s)

The outcome factor(s) that are measured in an experiment and may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.​

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between the groups.

Single-Blind Procedure

An experimental design where participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group, reducing bias.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental design where neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the treatment, preventing bias.

Placebo

A fake treatment or inactive substance given to a control group to test the effects of a real treatment.

Placebo Effect

A psychological effect where participants experience changes simply because they believe they received a real treatment.

Confounding Variable

An outside factor that might influence the results of a study, making it difficult to determine cause and effect.

Experimenter Bias

When a researcher unintentionally influences the results of a study due to their expectations.

Informed Assent

A process where minors or individuals unable to give full consent acknowledge understanding and agree to participate in research.

Protect from Harm

An ethical principle ensuring that participants are not exposed to physical or psychological harm during research.

Confidentiality

The ethical requirement to keep participants' data private and anonymous.

Research Confederates

Individuals who act as participants but are actually working with the researcher to influence the study’s outcome.

Debriefing

Explaining the purpose and details of the study to participants after the experiment, especially if deception was involved.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Standard Deviation

A measure of how spread out data points are from the mean; a higher value indicates more variability.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to identify overall trends.

Statistical Significance

A measure of whether the results of a study are likely due to chance; typically determined by a p-value.

Effect Size

A quantitative measure of the strength of a relationship between variables, showing practical significance.