Unit 2 - Psychology AOS1

What is person perception?

The mental processes used to understand and form impressions or opinions of other people.

What are the two ways we make judgments about others?

Directly through observation and interaction, and indirectly through second-hand information.

What influences first impressions?

Easily accessible information such as body language, speech, and behavior.

What are attributions in psychology?

Evaluations of the causes of behavior and the process of making these evaluations.

What is an example of a cognitive attribution process?

Observing someone running and inferring they are late.

What is internal attribution?

Judging behavior as caused by personal factors within an individual.

What is external attribution?

Determining the cause of behavior as resulting from situational factors outside the individual.

What is the fundamental attribution error?

The tendency to attribute others' negative actions to their personality while attributing one's own negative behavior to external factors.

What are attitudes in psychology?

Evaluations of something, formed through experiences and remaining consistent over time.

What is the tri-component model of attitudes?

A model consisting of affective, behavioral, and cognitive components.

What does the affective component of attitudes refer to?

Our emotional responses towards something.

What does the behavioral component of attitudes describe?

Our observable actions that reflect our attitudes.

What does the cognitive component of attitudes involve?

Our thoughts and beliefs about something.

What are some limitations of the tri-component model of attitudes?

Behavioral inconsistencies, oversimplification, ignoring external factors, and lack of strength indicators.

What are stereotypes?

Widely held beliefs and generalizations about a group that can lead to oversimplified judgments.

What is cognitive dissonance?

The psychological discomfort experienced when actions, beliefs, or values contradict one another.

What can reduce cognitive dissonance?

Changing thoughts to align with behavior or changing behavior to align with thoughts.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to search for and accept information that supports prior beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

What is the actor-observer bias?

The tendency to attribute one's own actions to external factors while attributing others' actions to internal factors.

What is the halo effect?

The tendency for an impression of one quality of a person to influence overall beliefs about that person.

What is the self-serving bias?

The tendency to attribute positive successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

What is false-consensus bias?

The tendency to overestimate the degree to which others share the same ideas and attitudes.

What are heuristics?

Mental shortcuts that help individuals make judgments and decisions quickly and efficiently.

What is the representative heuristic?

Making judgments based on the similarity of an item to other items in that category.

What is the anchoring heuristic?

Forming judgments based on the first information received about an idea or concept.

What is the availability heuristic?

Making judgments based on how easily examples come to mind.

What is the affect heuristic?

Making decisions based on emotions rather than objective analysis.

What is prejudice?

A negative attitude towards members of a group based solely on their membership of that group.

What are 'in groups' and 'out groups'?

'In groups' are groups you belong to, while 'out groups' are everyone who is not in your 'in group.'

What are the four characteristics of prejudice identified by Herbert Blumer?

1. Belief in superiority over the minority group. 2. Belief that the minority group is different and doesn't belong. 3. Belief in greater power and importance than the minority group. 4. Insecurity about the minority group becoming more powerful.

What is discrimination?

The unfair or prejudicial treatment of individuals or groups based on personal characteristics such as race, gender, age, or disability.

What is direct discrimination?

When someone is treated unfairly and disadvantaged because of a personal characteristic.

What is indirect discrimination?

When treating everyone the same way disadvantages someone because of a personal characteristic.

What is a stereotype?

A generalised, oversimplified belief or assumption about a group of people based solely on their identity.

How do stereotypes relate to prejudice and discrimination?

Stereotypes often lead to prejudice, and prejudice often leads to discrimination.

What is stigma?

The feeling of shame or disgrace experienced by an individual for a characteristic that differentiates them from others.

What are the two types of stigma?

Social stigma and self-stigma.

What is mental wellbeing?

An individual's current state of mind, involving their ability to think, process information, and regulate emotions.

What are some positive impacts of mental wellbeing?

Ability to make decisions, use logic, high self-esteem, high self-efficacy, and low stress and anxiety.

What are some negative impacts of poor mental wellbeing?

Inability to deal with stress, mistrust in relationships, mental health problems, substance abuse, and lower self-esteem.

What can be the influence of individual mental wellbeing on a person?

Damaged self-image, heightened stress, increased rumination, and susceptibility to mental health disorders.

What can be the influence of group mental wellbeing on targeted groups?

Higher prevalence of mental health disorders, social isolation, increased substance abuse, anxiety about hate crimes, and barriers to treatment.

What are some ways to reduce prejudice, discrimination, and stigma?

Education, law enforcement of equality, and media advocacy.

How does education help in reducing stigma?

It helps challenge negative attitudes and enables those targeted by stigma to understand available support.

What is the role of law enforcement in reducing discrimination?

Laws protect and give voice to minority groups, such as the Age Discrimination Act and the Sex Discrimination Act.

What is social loafing?

An individual's reduction in effort when work is performed in a group compared to individually.

What is social identity theory?

The tendency for people to favour their in-group over an out-group to enhance their self-esteem.

What is a norm?

A standard, value, or rule that outlines appropriate behaviour or experience within a society or group.

What is the difference between informal and formal norms?

Informal norms are expected and inferred, while formal norms are explicitly outlined rules.

How do choices and behaviours shape individual identity?

They influence how individuals are perceived by others, such as being seen as funny or caring.

What is culture?

The customs, behaviours, and values of a particular group in society.

What do individualist cultures prioritize?

The needs and goals of individuals and value independence.

What do collectivist cultures prioritize?

The needs and goals of groups.

How do individualist cultures view dependence on others?

Dependence on others is discouraged.

What is the effect of status on obedience?

Greater status or power of authority increases the extent of obedience.

What is conformity?

Adjusting one's thoughts, feelings, or behaviors to match those of others or a social group.

What are social norms?

Society's unofficial rules and expectations regarding how individuals should act.

What is groupthink?

A psychological phenomenon where assumed group unanimity overrules individuals' realistic appraisal of consequences.

What is deindividuation?

The tendency for individuals to lose their sense of identity and individuality within a group.

What is media?

The forms through which information is communicated and spread throughout society.

What is social comparison?

The proposal that humans measure their self-worth in relation to the people around them.

What are addictive behaviors?

Behaviors associated with dependence upon a particular stimulus, despite negative consequences.

What is self-determination?

Engaging in behaviors without the influence of other people as an external force.

What are the three psychological needs in self-determination theory?

Autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

What is anti-conformity?

A deliberate refusal to comply with social norms or standards for thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

What motivates anti-conformity?

Desire for change and reactance.

What is the ally effect?

The presence of an ally that leads to a reduction in the level of conformity.

What is the impact of social connections?

They ensure support and engagement, impacting mental well-being.

What are positive influences of social media?

Staying connected with distant friends and accessing support.

What are negative influences of social media?

Increased pressure to stay connected and the prevalence of fake profiles.

What is the role of misinformation in media?

Misinformation can spread easily online, negatively impacting group behavior.

What is the difference between print media and digital media?

Print media is displayed on a physical surface, while digital media is projected onto electronic devices.

What is the significance of autonomy in independence?

It allows individuals to act authentically based on individual choice.

What is competence in the context of psychological needs?

The level of skills, abilities, and knowledge required to carry out challenging tasks.

What does relatedness refer to in psychological needs?

The sense of attachment, connection to, and belonging with other people.

What is the impact of excessive media use?

It can lead to negative consequences on daily functioning.

How does social comparison influence self-esteem?

It can positively or negatively influence self-esteem based on comparisons with others.