SUBSTANCES

Serotonin

What substance is secreted by the pineal gland, as noted in the sources?

Norepinephrine

What substance, secreted by the pineal gland, is also mentioned in the sources?

Melatonin

What substance secreted by the pineal gland is involved in gonadal function and circadian rhythm?

Melatonin

What substance is secreted by the pineal gland, one of the circumventricular organs?

Vasopressin (ADH)

What hormone is synthesized by the supraoptic nucleus?

Oxytocin

What hormone is synthesized by the paraventricular nucleus?

Vasopressin and Oxytocin

What hormones are secreted by the neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary)?

Hypothalamic releasing factors

What substances are produced by the hypothalamus and control anterior pituitary hormone secretion?

Hypothalamic inhibitory factors

What substances are produced by the hypothalamus and control anterior pituitary hormone secretion?

GH, TSH, ACTH, PRL, FSH, LH

What are examples of anterior pituitary hormones mentioned that are controlled by the hypothalamus?

Sodium (Na+)

What ion is found in CSF and provided for CNS neuronal activity?

Potassium (K+)

What ion is found in CSF?

Chloride (Cl-)

What ion is found in CSF and provided for CNS neuronal activity?

Glucose

What substance is found in CSF at a normal level of approximately 2/3 of the blood level?

Little protein

What substance is found in very small amounts in normal CSF?

Lymphocytes

What type of cell is normally found in very sparse numbers in CSF?

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

What clear substance provides ions required for CNS neuronal activity and helps absorb mechanical shock?

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

What substance is produced by the choroid plexus?

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

What substance is reabsorbed into the venous circulation via arachnoid villi?

Acetylcholine

What is one of the neurotransmitters listed in the sources?

Glutamate

What amino acid transmitter is mentioned in the sources?

GABA

What amino acid transmitter is mentioned in the sources?

Glycine

What amino acid transmitter is described as the smallest neurotransmitter?

Histamine

What amine neurotransmitter is mentioned in the sources?

Serotonin

What amine neurotransmitter, along with histamine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and epinephrine, is mentioned in the sources?

Dopamine

What catecholamine neurotransmitter is mentioned in the sources?

Norepinephrine

What catecholamine neurotransmitter is mentioned in the sources?

Epinephrine

What catecholamine neurotransmitter is mentioned in the sources?

Neurotransmitters

What substances enable neuronal communication between neurons?

Serotonergic input

What type of modulatory input to the cortex originates from the Raphe nuclei?

Noradrenergic input

What type of modulatory input to the cortex originates from the Locus coeruleus and influences attention, arousal, and sleep/wake cycles?

Dopaminergic input

What type of modulatory input to the cortex originates from the Ventral tegmental area and Substantia nigra pars compacta?

Dopaminergic input

What type of modulatory input to the cortex is involved in motivation, reward, executive function, and motor control?

Histaminergic input

What type of modulatory input to the cortex originates from the Tuberomammillary nucleus and contributes to cortical arousal?

Cholinergic input

What type of modulatory input to the cortex originates from the nucleus basalis of Meynert?

Cholinergic input

What type of modulatory input is considered most important for cortical arousal and motivation, and is implicated in memory deficit in Alzheimer's disease?

Cholinergic input

What type of modulatory input to the hippocampus originates from cells in the septum and diagonal band of Broca?

GABAergic input

What type of input to the hippocampus originates from cells in the septum and diagonal band of Broca?

Oxygen

What substance's utilization by the adult brain accounts for approximately 20% of the body's total?

N-acetylaspartate (NAA)

What metabolite is one of the important substances seen in MRS?

Creatine

What metabolite is one of the important substances seen in MRS?

Choline

What metabolite is one of the important substances seen in MRS?

Aquaporin-4

What water channel is involved in glymphatic clearance, a process that becomes more active during sleep?

Lipophilic molecules

What type of molecules easily diffuse across the blood-brain barrier?

Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)

What tracer molecule is used in PET to analyze metabolic activity, such as glucose metabolism rates, in specific areas of the brain?

Carbon dioxide (implied from vascular control)

What substance's levels likely influence blood flow, as astrocytic foot processes regulate blood flow according to neuronal needs? (This is inferred from astrocytic function and neurovascular coupling, but the source only explicitly states astrocytic foot processes regulate blood flow and blood flow is increased in active areas. CO2 is a major regulator, but not named). Sticking strictly to named substances: There is no specific substance named for astrocytic regulation of blood flow in the sources.

Tight junctions

What cellular structures contribute to the blood-brain barrier by restricting the passage of substances?

Tanycytes

What cells, found in circumventricular organs, have fenestrations that allow some molecules to pass through, contributing to the absence of the BBB in these areas?

Endothelial cells

What type of cell, with tight junctions, is a component of the blood-brain barrier?

Pericytes

What type of cell is listed as a component of the neurovascular unit and blood-brain barrier?

Basal lamina

What structure is listed as a component of the neurovascular unit and blood-brain barrier?

Astrocytes

What type of glial cell, with foot processes, is listed as a component of the neurovascular unit and blood-brain barrier?

Microglia

What type of cell is listed as a component of the neurovascular unit and blood-brain barrier?

Schwann cells

What cells individually surround nerve fibers (axons) in peripheral nerves?

Connective tissue (CT)

What tissue surrounds nerve fibers in peripheral nerves along with Schwann cells?

Amino Acid transmitters

What category of neurotransmitters includes Glutamate, GABA, and Glycine?

Amines

What category of neurotransmitters includes Histamine, Serotonin, and Catecholamines?

Catecholamines

What category of neurotransmitters includes Dopamine, Norepinephrine, and Epinephrine?

Water

What substance is removed from blood by the choroid plexus to produce CSF?

Blood

What substance is filtered by the choroid plexus to produce CSF?

Blood-borne agents

What is the brain parenchyma protected from by the blood-brain barrier?

Tracer molecules

What is used in FDG PET to detect abnormal glucose metabolism rates?

Proteins

What substance is being utilized as transporters by new dementia drugs to bypass the BBB?

Acidic CSF

What condition might be detected by the median eminence, a circumventricular organ?

Toxins

What substance's levels might be detected by the Area postrema, triggering vomiting?

Sensory input

What is transmitted to the brain via ascending pathways in the spinal cord?

Motor commands

What are conveyed from the brain to muscles via descending pathways in the spinal cord?

Pain and temperature

What sensory information is transmitted via Lamina I (Posteromarginal nucleus) in the spinal cord gray matter?

Pain modulation

What function is associated with Lamina II (Substantia gelatinosa) in the spinal cord gray matter?

Light touch and pressure

What sensory information is relayed via Laminae III-IV (Nucleus proprius) in the spinal cord gray matter?

Sensory modalities

What type of information is integrated in Lamina V (Neck of posterior horn) in the spinal cord gray matter?

Proprioceptive processing and reflex arcs

What functions are associated with Lamina VI (Base of posterior horn) in the spinal cord gray matter?

Autonomic regulation and proprioception relay

What functions are associated with Lamina VII (Intermediate zone/intermediolateral horn) in the spinal cord gray matter?

Motor activity modulation

What function is associated with Lamina VIII (Commissural nucleus) in the spinal cord gray matter?

Voluntary and reflexive motor control

What functions are associated with Lamina IX (Ventral horn) in the spinal cord gray matter?

Visceral reflex integration and pain modulation

What functions are associated with Lamina X (Grisea centralis) in the spinal cord gray matter?

Flexor muscle tone

What is facilitated by the rubrospinal tract?

Posture and balance

What is maintained by the vestibulospinal tracts?

Voluntary movement and reflexes

What is modulated by the reticulospinal tracts?

Head and eye movements

What is coordinated by the tectospinal tract in response to visual stimuli?

Corticospinal tract

What efferent pathway originates from the primary motor cortex and is responsible for voluntary motor control of the contralateral body?

Corticobulbar tract

What efferent pathway originates from the primary motor cortex and is responsible for voluntary motor control of the face, head, and neck?

Rubrospinal tract

What efferent pathway originates from the red nucleus and facilitates flexor muscles of the upper limbs?

Tectospinal tract

What efferent pathway originates from the superior colliculus and coordinates head and neck reflexes to visual stimuli?

Vestibulospinal tracts

What efferent pathways originate from vestibular nuclei and function in balance and posture control?

Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus (MLF)

What efferent pathway originates from vestibular nuclei and the interstitial nucleus and coordinates eye, head, and neck movements?

Dorsal Motor Nucleus of Vagus

What brainstem nucleus gives rise to an efferent pathway involved in parasympathetic autonomic control of the heart, lungs, and digestive tract?

Edinger-Westphal Nucleus

What nucleus gives rise to parasympathetic fibers that terminate in the ciliary ganglion for pupil constriction and lens accommodation?

Superior and Inferior Salivatory Nuclei

What nuclei give rise to parasympathetic fibers terminating in salivary and lacrimal glands for salivation and lacrimation control?

Olfaction (smell)

What special sense, transmitted by CN I, does not pass through the thalamus before reaching the cortex?

Vision

What special sense is the function of CN II?

Taste

What special sense is a function of CN VII and CN IX?

Hearing

What special sense is a function of CN VIII?

Balance

What special sense/function is associated with the vestibular part of CN VIII?

Sensory information from the face, scalp, cornea, and oral/nasal mucosa

What type of information is transmitted by the sensory fibers of CN V?

Motor control of the muscles of mastication

What function is provided by the motor fibers (V3 only) of CN V?

Motor control of facial muscles

What function is provided by the motor fibers of CN VII?

Parasympathetic control of lacrimation and salivation (except parotid)

What function is provided by the parasympathetic fibers of CN VII?

Motor control of muscles of the palate, pharynx, and larynx

What function is provided by the motor fibers of CN X?

Parasympathetic control of heart, lungs, and digestive tract

What function is provided by the parasympathetic fibers of CN X?