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what are the three types of experimental design ?
independent groups - each ppt tested in 1 condition, ppts randomly allocated to their condition
repeated measures - same ppt used in both conditions and involved in each task, tested several times
matched pairs - people are paired up as closely to another person using a pretest, then the pair is randomly divided into one of the 2 conditions.
What are the 2 strengths and weaknesses of independent groups
strengths
no order effects (which order conditions applied in)
reduced chance of demand characteristics as ppts take part in only one condition
weaknesses
no control over ppt variables - unsure if ppts are causing change in dv or if the IV is
need 2x as many ppts
What are the 2 strengths and weaknesses of repeated measures?
strengths
ppt variables are eliminated as each ppt is their own control
less time needed to find and sort ppts as there are fewer needed
weaknesses
order effects (fatigue, boredom, practice) may cause unreliable results
can be controlled through counterbalancing (each condition tested first and second in equal ammount)
more chance of demand characteristics
What are the 2 strengths and weaknesses of matched pairs?
strengths
no order effects
control ppt variables
weaknesses
time consuming to match ppts
more ppts required
How can observational research be conducted?
cameras/CCTV
one-way mirrors
making notes
behavioral checklist
what are the 6 types of observation?
naturalistic = carried out in real-world setting
controlled = carried out in a lab setting
overt = ppts are aware they are being studied
covert = ppts are unaware they are being studied
participant = observer becomes part of the group being studied
non-participant = observer stays separate from ppts
how can observers measure a continuous stream of behaviour?
behavioral categories/checklist
should be clear and precise
how can an observer record behaviour?
event sampling = records the number of times a behavior occurs
time sampling = records behavior at certain time intervals
What is a pilot study and its aims?
small scale trial of a research design run before the research itself
aims to check procedures and materials, saving time and money in the long run and increasing validity of research
in observational research can help identify if behavioural categories are appropriate, that ppts can be seen and heard clearly etc
what are potential ethical issues with observational research?
informed consent
deception if covert
privacy
right to withdraw
what are potential methodological issues with observational research?
hard to categorize behaviors
observer bias - due to subjective interpretations of behaviour
demand characteristics
what are the measures of central tendency?
mean = average
mode = the number that occurs most
median = middle number
what is an advantage and disadvantage of using the mean?
ad = can be representative of all data
dis = can be unrepresentative id there is a anomaly
what are the advantages and disadvantages of using the mode?
ad = useful when data is on categories
dis = not effective when there are several modes or when the mode is further from the middle value
what are the advantages and disadvantages of using the median?
ad = not effected by extremes
dis = only reflects one value so is not as sensitive as the mean
what are the 6 ethical considerations with any experiment?
informed consent - must be told what they are doing, how long it will take and the aims of the study. under 16 can’t give consent
right to withdraw - every ppt should no they can leave at any time and take data with them
deception - not revealing true aims and therefor taking away their right to consent
respect - respect individuals and any differences (age, race, gender, sex, culture etc)
privacy/confidentiality - none of the ppts data should be identifiable, people’s personal space treated with respect
protection from harm - nothing happen to make the ppt feel unhappy, stressed or embarrassed
who decides what is ethical research?
ethics committees - approve research proposals
weigh up costs and benefits
makes issues less likely and considerations take place before conducting the study
makes ethical issues less likely as considerations have been made
BPS (British psychological society) base decisions on 4 principles
respect
competence
responsibility
integrity
how can deception be overcome?
debriefing =
told true aims
reminded of their rights
begins with ‘thankyou for taking part in this study’
means people have option to withdraw without effecting the study as it takes place
What are the three alternative forms of consent?
retrospective = get consent after the study
presumptive = ask a similar group to ppts taking part
prior general consent = ppts asked whether they are prepared to take part in research where they may be deceived about true purpose
this combats issues with debriefing not being possible (ie in naturalistic setting)
what are the four types of experiment?
laboratory
field
natural
quasi
What is a laboratory experiment?
conducted in a controlled environment specific for research
IV is manipulated by researcher, DV is measured
What are the 2 strengths and weaknesses of lab experiments?
strengths
researcher can control variables therefore extraneous variables are controlled - confidence in cause and effect (IV affecting DV)
high replicability so results can be checked if they are reliable.
weaknesses
high level of control makes situation very artificial so is difficult to generalise from lab to real life (lacks ecological validity)
demand characteristics as people may act differently to the way that they would in real life.
What is a field experiment?
studies conducted in real world setting
IV is manipulated by the experimenter and ppts are allocated to conditions.
in most field experiments, ppts do not know that they are in the experiments (covert)
what are the 2 strengths and weaknesses of a field experiment?
strengths
are less likely to show demand characteristics as they usually covert
Research has higher ecological validity as it is a natural setting so research can be generalised to a similar setting.
weaknesses
less control over extraneous variables decreasing validity, and confidence that it is the IV affecting the DV
ethical issues such as deception due to research being covert
what are natural experiments?
conducted in natural environment
IV varies naturally based on existing differences, natural events occur that the experimenter studies
what are the 2 strengths and weaknesses of natural experiments?
Strengths
people in a natural setting behave more authentically increasing ecological validity
allows study of effects if an IV that would be otherwise unethical to study
weaknesses
no random assignment of PPTs to conditions so individual differences could be an issue (risk of confounding variables)
extraneous variables not controlled so hard to know what aspects have a direct effect on the DV and what parts of the IV are having an effect.
What is the difference between extraneous and confounding variables?
extraneous variable = variable that you're not investigating that can potentially affect the dependent variable of your research study.
confounding variable = type of extraneous variable that not only affects the dependent variable, but also the independent variable
What are quasi-experiments?
IV is based on existing differences between people (age/gender). means no one has manipulated the variable, it already exists
if anxiety levels were compared across people, the IV of having anxiety would not have come about due to any manipulation
different from natural as conducted in a lab
what is the strength and weakness of quasi-experiments?
strength = allow for comparison of conditions impossible to manipulate. control of variables - better cause and effect conclusions and replicate
weaknesses = not possible to randomly allocate ppts to conditions, that may be confounding variable (adds to the effects of another variable)
what are self report methods and the types?
methods are where ppt provides information about their own feelings and thoughts to a researcher.
interviews = people are asked questions about their experiences/beliefs. they can be either structured or unstructured. they are normally analysed using a recording or transcribed.
questionnaires = a written survey
what are open and closed questions?
closed = yes or no
open = invites a person to give a more detailed and in-depth answer
What are the two types of interview?
unstructured = have little structure and are more conversational, inviting the interviewee to talk more freely.
structured = a standard set of questions are asked in the same order to all interviewees. not as good for in-depth information
can be written down or recorded and transcribed for analysis
what are the strengths (2) and weaknesses (3) of interviews?
strengths
open questions give rich information
researcher is present so ppts may be more honest and feel they can’t lie and misunderstandings can be clarified
weaknesses
Open-question data is harder to analyse and manipulate
more time-consuming and expensive than using a questionnaire
as researcher is present, increased risk of investigator effects and social desirability bias affecting validity
what are some considerations that you should take when making a questionnaire?
open or closed questions
questions and instructions must be easily understood
the pilot study should be carried out first to tests if adequate
what are the strengths (3) and weaknesses (4) of questionnaires?
strengths
lots of data from a large sample in quickly and cheaply
researcher does not need to be present so investigator effects are reduced, such as social desirability bias
anonymous so more ethical way to collect data for sensitive topics
weaknesses
leading questions may lead to social desirability bias
biased as only certain people will fill in the questionnaire eg. if you illiterate
based on the trust that people will be truthful
easy misunderstanding can lead to invalid results
what is the correlational method?
an association or relationship between two variables rather than the difference in conditions
no IV or DV. variables are called co-variables
positive (increase/decrease together) or negative (increase when other decreases) depending on the relationship
described as strong or weak
best displayed in a scatter-graph
what are the two ways to know when to collect data?
event sampling - recording when a behaviour takes place
time sampling - recording at specified time intervals
what are the three types of correlation and their coefficients?
positive - both variables move in the same direction (+1)
negative - the variables move in opposite directions (-1)
none - no relationship between the two variables (0)
what is a correlation coefficient?
number calculated to show the strength of the relation between variables. the closer to the correlation values the calculated number is, the stronger the neg/pos correlation.
what are the three types of hypothesis?
null = there will be no difference/correlation between variables
experimental hypothesis - testable statement of an effect of the IV on the DV, based on previous research
directional = stating there will be a difference/correlation and the type that it will be
non-directional = saying there will be a difference/correlation but not aware what it may be
name one strength and one weakness of the correlational method…
strength = can look at situations that are unable to be manipulated due to ethical issues
weakness = only a relationship is found, although there is no defining the cause and effect, there may be other variables involved.
what are the main three rules for a hypothesis?
hypothesis should always include both conditions of the IV
operationalisation - must be written so it is clear how IV and DV are to be tested
hypothesis to be written in future tense
what are the 5 sampling techniques to select ppts?
opportunity
volunteer
systematic
stratified
random
What is random sampling and it’s evaluations?
everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected - e.g. names out of a hat
strength = least bias - all members have equal chance of being selected (representative sample)
weakness = even if random, may not be truly representative - can be helped by using a large number of ppts
what is systematic sampling and it’s evaluations?
There is a system used for selecting ppts from the ‘sampling frame’ - e.g. every 5th name (system) in the register (sampling frame)
strength = avoids researcher bias, the researcher has no influence over who will be selected also fairly representative
weakness = no guarantee the sample is representative
What is stratified sampling and it’s evaluations?
sample population’s subgroups are identified, ppts then divided into them (age, gender etc.). proportions to make the sample representative are calculated (in the whole population how prevalent is each subgroup?). PPTs from each subgroup are selected by random sampling.
strengths = ensures each subgroup of the population is represented so generalisation is more valid
weaknesses = can’t represent all the ways people are different (subgroups) so representative of some subgroups more than others
What is opportunity sampling and its evaluations?
selecting people based on who is most readily available at the time
strengths = convenient and less time-consuming
weaknesses = high possibility sample will be biased as it has low population validity (small part of the popu) and not be easily generalised
What is volunteer sampling and it’s evaluations?
ppts select themselves for the study due to an advertisement.
strength = no ethical issues as ppts have chosen to be involved
weaknesses = volunteer bias - a particular type of person will volunteer eg. highly motivated making the sample less representative.
what are the two measures of dispersion ?
range = the difference between the highest value and the lowest value
standard deviation = The spread of data around the mean
What is a case study and the strengths (2) and weaknesses (3)?
detailed investigation of individual or group of people, involves a variety of methods (observation, interview etc) and are studied in some way
strengths
can give large amount of quan/qual data diving detailed investigation
longitudinal so changes can be observed over time
weaknesses
focus on small sample means difficult to generalise findings
detailed investigation of one person cannot be replicated - can’t be tested for reliability
bias may occur as researcher becomes deeply incolved with the individual/group - lacks objectivity
what are a strengths and weaknesses of primary and secondary research?
primary
strength = data will match research aims - increases validity
weaknesses = takes time and effort
secondary
strength = quick cheap and easy, gives good overview as can have larger sample sizes
weakness = data may not match research aims as person has not collected data first hand
What are the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative data?
quantitative
strength = easier to analys and draw conclusions as is numerical
weakness = oversimplification, may decrease depth of data
qualitative data
strength = provides rich detail
weakness = analysis and interpretation is subjective by researcher, harder to categorise/analyse
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