Midterm 1 - psych 101

what is empiricism

The conviction that accurate knowledge of the world can be acquired by observing it 

scientific method

Empiricism = backbone of the scientific method, contains theories (never able to be proved 100%), but are explanations of natural phenomena, and have a hypothesis - a falsifiable prediction made by a theory

1. theory

2. falsifiable hypothesis

3. empirical evidence

challenges to observing human behaviour

1. extremely complex

2. extremely variable

3. extremely reactive

operational definition

description of a property in measurable terms (amount of dopamine in a person’s brain, # of smiles per minute, how happy someone is from 1-10)

construct validity

extent to which your test or measure accurately assesses what its supposed to

demand charactoristics 

when performing tests pacients can do things bc that what they think you want them to do. 

how to avoid demand charactoristics

1. naturalistic observation - gathering info by observing things in natural habitats/environments without their knowledge

2. privacy/control - allow people to share info w/o quoting/authoring their thoughts

3. unawareness - do not disclose the reason for the research (they can’t act a certain way if they don’t know what way to act)

Observer bias

tendency for observers’ expectation to influence both what they believe they observed and what they actually observe 

frequency distribution 

full picture graphs - graphic representation showing # of times the measurement of a property takes on each of its possible values (bar graph/curve graphs) 

how do we aquire correct information 

1. authority (asking someone) 

2. Intuition (trusting guts)

3. Empiricism (observing world)

4. Experiments (testing) 

Authority - gaining information (general/draw backs)

• considered weakest form of info gaining (based on trust)

• starts with parents, goes to teachers, doctors, anyone with higher intelligence 

• exploitable - easily trusting when in a lab coat (could be fake doc)

• often overextended - getting all info from people w PhDs (even if they aren’t experts on that topic)

• era of “bullshit” - people are indifferent to truth (people trying to convince you to believe them)

draw backs of Intuition (gaining information)

• great limitations, but a good place to start/bad place to end (information from experience)

• illusory correlation - seeing relationships in places there isn’t 

• correlation ≠ causation - could be a 3rd party involved (ash trays don’t cause cancer) - intuition can’t identify what causes what 

• susceptible to bias - overconfidence, favourable vs unfavourable, probability, confirmation bias (looking for your answer only, and ignoring truth), hindsight bias, Post-hoc explanations (ability to do something doesn’t mean you can explain it)

Observation (gaining info)

• critical to good science (empiricism)

• works best with objective measures (measurements we all agree on) 

• not enough to aquire full understanding 

• bias/limited explanatory power - lobotomies 

Scientific Skepticism (gaining infor) 

• skepticism = beginning of faith 

• questing authority/intuition - info based on our own experience/what you understand 

• question your senses/knowledge/what is already known

Scientific method

based off of aspects of observation, intuition, scientific skepticism, or authority

1. Observation 

2. Idea

3. Consult past research 

4. Hypothesis 

5. Ethical approval 

6. Collect data 

7. Modify and repeat (if hypothesis is wrong = often) 

8. Consider implications of results, build on theories 

Good science causes good science! 

Principles of good science

• materialism 

• universalism 

• communality 

• disinterest 

• organized skepticism 

Materialism (principle of good science)

• everything in universe = material, therefore, can be studied

• thoughts have physical basis, mind has physical basis (can be studied)

• materialism = Thomas Hobbes! 

Universalism (principle of good science)

• the idea that we use objective measures to observe the world = systematic - universally agreed measures 

Communality (principle of good science)

• methods/results should be accessible to all people (anyone can recreate study

• leads to better science

• findings relying on community as whole

• checks accuracy

disinterestedness (principle of good science)

• not caring whether you are right or wrong in hypothesis

• controls bias - confirmation bias vs not continuing to find out that you are wrong in findings

• good science = more science 

• creates products that aren’t harmful to people (drugs made that don’t do anything or even harm people) 

Organized skepticism (principle of good science)

• science based on scientific merit

• all information gained matters if it is made in an accurate and good way -doesn’t have to be written by Nobel prize winner 

developing a theory

• Theory = describes/organizes scientific info altogether (the ideology that the Earth revolves around the Sun)

• puts theories to test - good theories are falsifiable (gravity) 

  • generating new knowledge 

• parsimonious - simplest possible explanation - more simple theory often is right 

Pseudoscience

• something that looks scientific but is not

• relies on authority - creditation

• emphasis on scientific sounding jargon 

• not falsifiable/easily falsifiable

• poor/no methodology - hasn’t been studied well/evidence is small 

• poor/no anecdotal evidence 

• not peer reviewed/scientifically examined 

• ignores previous science

• vague claims

• reinforces status quo

goal of psychological research

• making life better

• describe behaviour - what people do, observing what people do

• predicting behaviour - based on observations

• determine causes of behaviour - thinking about mechanisms underneath data

• influence/control behaviour (with impacts of all of the above)

Types of research

1. Basic research (foundational)

   1. most important science starts w basic science (describing/predicting) can’t cure disease w/o understanding the mechanisms of that disease

2. applied research

   1. testing out research - drugs, education systems

Polygyny/parental investment in females

• high investment by females - low size of males they mate with, high selectivity in choice of male 

• Females want to mate with the best choice (high selectivity = high parental investment) 

• females have a higher incentive to be picky (better genes=better chance babies survive and carry on her genes) 

  • goal = produce healthy offspring that is able to reproduce themselves 

• pick male with the best traits 

• polygyny = male with many females 

polygyny/parental investment in males

• less picky (not as worried about the likelihood of spreading DNA) - singular male = crack as many as possible (frat guys in the wild)

  • low selectivity = low parental investment (involvement stops after sperm) (low mating effort) 

• not limited by parental involvement but by amount of fertile females that he can mate with

• advantage = can produce most offspring, but disadvatage = fighting with each other for female attention (biggest male wins) 

• more polygynous species is, the greater the average size of the species will be  

• the larger/stronger the male = more females will reproduce with them 

• polygyny = male with many females

polyandry/parental involvement (female perspective)

• female has multiple male mates 

• low female parental investment

  • lay eggs and let the male take care 

  • females are typically more active/aggressive 

  • drive out other females 

• goal = mate with as many males to produce as much offspring then continue 

• Polyandry = a female with many males

• Females often more aggressive/strong than males (fighting for mates)

Polyandry/parental investment (male perspective) 

• high male investment 

  • wants offspring bad

• polyandry = female with many males 

Monogamy/parental investment (male/female perspective)

• equal investment, equal competition for mate

• child requires both parents 

• little-no natural selection for sex difference is size/strength 

• social monogamy - faithful pair when raising young 

  • females - pair with mate that is usually stronger in genes than her own mate (resulting in genetically superior offspring) 

  • males - drive away other males and couple with as many females  

• Sexual monogamy = male/female produces young together 

• Social monogamy doesn’t imply sexual monogamy 

Promiscuity/group investment 

• female advatage - parental confusion (father = unknown) good bc males will kill offspring of males that aren’t there own. if they don’t know whether offspring is theres or not = not killing offspring 

• leads to males in group protecting and caring for all offspring 

• High white blood cell count = fighting STD’s (high=promiscuity, med=polygamy, low= monogamy)

Evolutionary perspective: functions of romantic love/sexual jealousy, how is it supported by species comparisons, how is sexual unfaithfulness explained 

• both helps strengthens bonds in monogamous relationship - become jealous when seeing partner with others 

• chimps/apes= promiscuious - engage in sexual relations w/o emotion 

• jealously preserves bonds so they are durable enough to care for offspring together  

sexual unfaithfulness

reproducing with organisms other than mate w/o emotional connection (lust) 

• males = produce as many offspring possible 

• females = produce the most genetically superior offspring 

sex differences in aggression

• polygamous/polyandrous females = fight other females for mates

• polygamous males = fight other males for mates

• monogamous = both fight for each other 

• promiscuity = female aggression to other females outside of group to prevent them from entering 

• other reasons: protect young, fight for resources, heighten status 

why are male primates more aggressive than female 

• males have less to lose - just themselves, females risk themselves, any children/unconcieved children and potential to concieve more 

• they kill offspring that isnt theres

• fight other males for status/mate

• fight females to stop them from mating with other males (then force them to mate with them)

types of helping

• altruism - helping group while not benefiting yourself (warning cry)

• cooperation - working together for mutual benefit 

• animals are more likely to help their kin then those who are not 

  • high cost = kin>non kin 

  • med cost: kin = non kin 

  • low cost: kin< non kin 

• reciprocity - we don’t expect anything in return but are more inclined to help others who have helped us in the past

evidence that supports idea that many human emotional expressions are examples of species-typical behaviours 

• human emotional/human expression = universal 

  • people who are blind still use them (couldn’t be visually taught them)

how do human emotion expressions illustrate the point that species typical behaviours can be modified by learning 

• can differ from culture to culture (still species typical) 

• changes by learning customs/expectations of culture 

• innate behaviour relies of predisposition, developmental depends on learning 

how does example of two-legged walking/language in humans/singing in white sparrows illustrate point of species-typical behaviours may depend on learning

has to be shown/raised in such environment to inhabit the traits (babies learning to walk/birds learning songs) 

how is biological preparedness related to species-typical behaviour - examples of human walking/talking illustrate biological preparedness 

• biological preparedness= natural selection/evoultion giving us anatomical structures to carry out these behaviours 

  • walking on two legs - born with naturally stronger legs than arms 

why is the concept of species-typical behaviours relative rather than absolute 

no behaviour comes exclusively from biological preparedness rather biological preparedness + behaviours that our taught to us 

difference between homology and analogy

homology = common characteristic stemming from ancestry

analogy = common characteristic that evolved independently from one another (but still ended up similar due to environment/evolutionary changes 

can tell the difference by looking at the ancestry 

how are homologies used for learning about physiological mechanisms and evolutionary pathways of species-typical traits 

learning about species-typical traits by studying rats, mice or other lab animals - behaviours like learning, motivation, and sensation are homologous among animals 

Evolutionary pathways are studied by comparing different forms of species typical behaviour in closely related species to reconstruct how one behaviour came from another 

how do studies of homologies between humans and other primates support view of the human greeting smile and human happy smile having separate evolutionary origins

• evolved separately bc of having different purposes 

• one came from genuine happiness (discovered from apes playing) and other from submissive nature (apes coming across a more dominate ape and not wanting to fight) 

how does understanding of evolution provide basis for functionalism in psychology

• functionalism - attempt to explain behaviour in terms of how it benefits the organism 

• provide a basis by understanding why organisms have certain traits/behaviour (natural selection and favourable traits) 

differences between distal explanations of behaviour and proximate explanations (different but complementary) 

distal - evolutionary perspective, shows behaviours caused certain trait to be passed down as a result of the environment 

proximal - biological perspective, what biological systems and conditions were needed in order for this behaviour to occur 

complementary b/c distal provides explanation of the conditions of survival and reproductive purpose of behaviour and proximate explains conditions of stimuli and physiological mechanisms that causes behaviour to occur 

ex. song birds 

• distal - birds sang songs to attract females and drive away males 

• proximate - increased daylight in spring causes an increase in testosterone, which acts on the bird's brain, pros drive to sing’s drive to sing  

• Distal explains the functional purpose of a trait that got passed, and proximate explains how that behaviour occurs because of the trait

4 reasons for existance of traits/behaviours that don’t serve survival and reproductive functions 

1. vestigial characteristics - evolved traits that once served a purpose but no longer do 

2. adaptation - by product of natural selection, but don’t serve a great functional purpose once the term of use of natural selection is done 

3. genetic drift - isolates certain traits by chance 

4. Not all traits picked by natural selection serve a helpful/unhelpful purpose 

What insight led Darwin to the theory of evolution? How is natural selection similar to and different from artificial selection 

humans can artifically select best traits possible (breeding animals), nature selects most favourable traits in terms of survival and reproduction (natural selection) 

Darwin saw that traits that helped organisms survive in the environment also allowed them to reproduce/pass them on to the next generation 

how are genes involved in evolution - what are the sources of genetic diversity on which natural selection acts

• genes = basis for evolution - change in gene frequency across generations

• genetic diversity starts at egg/sperm - DNA in cells randomly assorted to make each offspring individual and not identical to the next

• mutations in DNA = random errors in DNA replication (some can be useful, but mostly harmful) - contributes to evolution

How does a change in the environment affect the direction/speed of evolution? How study of finches illustrate the role of environmental change in evolution

environmental change = rate of evolution change (industrial revolution with moths, originally light moths were favoured, but after environmental change, darker moths were favoured)

3 mistaken beliefs about evolution, all related to the misconception that foresight is involved 

1. there isnt apparent end goal to evolution, it does not bring us closer to becoming a better organism for an environmental change later 

2. one organism is not “more evolved” than another, there is not ranking in how evolved a creature is. An amoeba is just evolved as humans 

3. Natural selection is not a moral force; something that is selected isn’t morally good, but helpful in that moment. The idea that what happens in nature is attached to morals is incorrect  

How was the difference in fearfulness between the cocker spaniel and the banseji hounds shown to be controlled by a single gene locus, with the “fear” allele dominant over the “non-fear” 

Breeding a pure-bred cocker (homozygous confident) with a pure-bred Basenji (homozygous fearful) resulted in all F1 offspring being scared. when these offspring bread, ¾ were fearful and ¼ were confident.= fearful allele is dominant over the non-fearful allele. Discovered fear was not due to mothers raising of young, but from genes

why wrong to conclude that fear in dogs is caused just by one gene or that it is caused just by genes and not environment 

• must be network of neural mechanisms that help process fear - single gene cant accomplish all of that 

• they isolated puppies for 4 months then reintroduced them to humans (bound to be fearful) 

• genes alone can’t determine behaviour, but there are behaviour-determining genes, and still environment impacts behaviour 

how genes and environment interact to affect individuals with PKU 

• Infants can be born with Recessive gene causing PKU (over production of Phenylalanine) only triggered when food with it is consumed 

  • if put on non-phenylalanine diet, growth wont be affected

• genes and environment can affect the outcome of the expression of diseases

how distribution of traits differ (polygenic traits differing from single-gene traits)

• single-gene traits = extremes, you have it or you don’t 

  • single-gene traits only rely on one gene

• Polygenic traits = continuous, organisms can partially have the trait (shown as a normal distribution- middle range) 

  • can show more of one and less of another - no absolutes 

  • polygenic traits rely on multiple genes and the environment to determine how it is expressed 

how might understanding of epigenetics change the way we view genetic inheritance 

• help better explain a person's lifetime experiences, and influence the gene-environment interactions of future generations. 

• All cells in the human body have the same genes (somatic) - epigenetic effects that allow certain genes to be activated in certain cells due to DNA methylation 

• as the environment changes so do effects of DNA methylation 

• DNA Methylation can be inherited- the gene itself doesn’t change, but the epigenetic effects on a gene can 

how genes affect behavioural traits through role in protein synthesis

• We are built on proteins - encoded by genes, which are segments of DNA 

• they control/make up our entire body

• The process of protein synthesis affects the behavioural traits that are expressed, since behaviours come from the interaction between genes and the environment 

• genes produce proteins, which alter physiological systems, leading to behaviour where the environment affects each part of this process of producing behaviour 

what does it mean to say that genes influence behaviour traits only through interaction with the environment? How are genes involved in long-term behaviour changes derived from experience 

• environment factors can help turn gene on or off 

  • result of experiences that activate a certain gene, thus turning gene on or off 

• certain experiences can alter gene expression, altering protein production/behaviour 

• ex. The temperature of the environment determines the sex of snakes (temperature = changes protein production, changing physiological systems, changing overall behaviour of the snake 

how can same genotype produce various phenotypes

• due to differing environments 

• ex. twins- same genotype, but expressed differently (look slightly different) = phenotype 

  • result from baby getting more nutrients in womb/learning experiences, rats coming from the same mother but being raised differently 

how does meiosis produce egg/sperm cells that are all genetically different from one another

DNA replication =

1. homologous chromosomes line at centre (independent assortment can occur) →

2. homologous chromosomes pulled apart →

3. sister chromatids line at centre (independent assortment + crossing over) →

4. sister chromatids are pulled apart →

5. left with 4 genetically different haploid gametes 

what is frequency distribution 

• number of times a property takes on each of its possible values, or at every variable of the measurement 

• organizing data/reveals patterns, showing amount of times it hit a certain point meant to be revealed 

• ex. bar graph 

what are the 2 main types of descriptive statistics

1. central tendency: measurements that tend to lie in the centre of a frequency distribution → summary of the data (the average) - tendency for data to crowd around mean, mode, or median

2. variability: the extent to which the measurements differ → graphical data 

what you can/cannot conclude from correlation research 

correlation research tells us if 2 variables are related but not if change in one variable causes the change in another variable 

what are the essential ingredients of an experiement

1. independent variable (variable that is manipulated ex. dosage) 

2. dependent variable (variable that changes due to independent variable ex. affect of the dosage)

Comparing the 2 variables and seeing how the DV changed depending of the manipulation of the IV

How experiments solve the third variable problem 

• ruling out 2 out of 3 possibilities (x→y, y→x, z→x and y) 

• experiments can determine the actual cause of a correlation and which it is, or if a third variable is causing a change in both 

what kind of conclusions can and cannot be drawn from experimental evidence

• conclusions that have a causal relationship between 2 variables, or a 3rd variable 

• If correlation is real, it means that it is either real only in the context of the experiment (internal validity) or is related to real life as well (external validity)

• CANNOT be drawn is 100% certainty that one variable causes the other variable to change - shows that it is true in this instance, but maybe not 100% of the time 

what are type 1 and type 2 errors in context of psychological research

type 1: finding relationships between variables when there is actually no relationship (fluke) 

type 2: not identifying relationships between variables when there is one (flunk)

why should psychologists worry if replication rate is too low or too high (type 1/type 2 errors)

• avoiding all type 2 errors would result in the possibility of type 1 errors, where results would be flukes → replication rate would be low b/c results wouldn’t be consistent. 

  • Some experiments would result in more relationships than others - relationships can be concluded where there is no real relationship 

• avoiding all type 1 errors would result in the possibility of type 2 errors, where results would be flunks → replication rate would be too high b/c results would be consistently true, but would miss real relationships between variables as well

2 steps people use to help them think critically

1. doubt what you see → dont assume the info infront of you is correct

2. consider what you don’t see → what info isnt being provided that would cause clearer view

be skeptical

3 basic principles of ethical research that must be followed

1. respect people - no coercion or deception

2. Benefits outweighs risk

3. maximize benefits - concern for patient ’ well-being

summery - what are ways psychologists ensure their research respects people 

1. verbal agreement/informed consent

2. no coersion: participation must be voluntary 

3. benefits outweigh risks 

4. no physical/psychological harm 

5. no deception that may cause physical/psychological harm 

6. must be debriefed at end to ensure participants are aware of everything that happened and the intent behind the research

7. confidentiality

what are ways psychologists ensure their research respects truth

• all credit is given

• all data is published 

• results are not tampered or left without final publication 

Philosophical Dualism

The idea that the mind and body are completely separate things. René Descartes (1596-1650) believed that they should be viewed as separate. Body = material Mind = Immaterial

Philosophical Materialsim

The idea that the Mind and body are in fact connected - one influences the other (the mind is what the brain does), Thomas Hobbes (1588- 1679) disagreed with Decartes on Dualism

Compare and contrast Philosophical Materialism and Dualism

Materialism = connection between mind/brain/body. They all exist with each other - Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Dualism = separation of mind/body. The body = material (can feel, smell, taste), the mind = immaterial (can’t do that). René Descartes (1596-1650) believed that they should be viewed entirely differently

Materialsim = more commonly used by psychologists today

Philosphical Realism

John Locke (132-1704) believed that what we see is a perception of the physical world is a perfect copy to what we see in the real world - what we see is what is accurate to what is actually happening (what is a fact and a picture)

Philosophical Idealism

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) disagreed with philosophical realism. Believed that our perceptions of the world are interpretations. Our brain does the best it can to process information that was given by sensory apparatus. (sees life as paintings and interpretations)

Compare and contrast philosophical realism and idealism

Realism = John Locke (1632-1704) believed that our interpretations of the world are facts. The information received by eyes to the brain is a perfect “picture” of what is happening (picture and fact)

Idealism = Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) believed that our brain does the best it can to process all the information given to us through the sensory apparatus. believed that we see the physical world as an interpretation (painting and interpretation)

Idealism is more commonly used by psychologists today

Philosophical Empiricism

the view that all belief/knowledge comes from experience. empiricial data comes from experiments. John Locke (Philosophical Realism) believed that we were born with “tabula Rasa” - blank slates - aka that we are born without experience and therefore no new ideas

Philosophical Nativism

The belief that some knowledge is innate rather than acquired. Immanuel Kant (Philosophical Idealism) argued that basic information of the world allows you to learn more- aka some basic information comes with birth

Compare and contrast Philosophical Nativism and Empiricism

Philosophical Empiricism = Belief that we are born without any information of the world - Tabula Rasa = blank slate. Gaining knowledge/information comes from experience. backed by John Locke (Philosophical Realism)

Philosophical Nativism = the belief that some information is innate to our beings and comes with being born. We have to have some information to continue learning in the world. Backed by Immanuel Kant (philosophical Idealism)

who was Hermann Von Helmholtz

Hermann Von Helmholtz (1821-1894) = a physician/physiologist, experimented by touching patients’ thighs/toes to test response time; thighs = faster due to the signals travelling less distance to the brain. one of the founding fathers of structuralism, with the assistance of Wilhelm Wundt.

who was Wilhelm Wundt

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) was an assistant to Hermann von Helmholtz. he taught the first course on experimental psychology in 1867. goal = discovering consciousness + its combinations/relations so we can later find out what causes those relations/combinations. Ideology led to Structuralism

who was Edward Titchener

Edward Titchener (1867-1927) student of Wilhelm Wundt and created the technique of Introspection = the analysis of subjective experience by trained observers (psychologists taught to record raw experience rather than their interpretation of it)

issue with introspection

coined by Edward Titchener - all people have different experiences with all things, therefore, information gained can’t be reliable because it varies from person to person (how people have different pain tolerances, how we understand/interpret things)

Introspection = rationalism

what is structuralism: what is the mind like

An approach to psychology that attempted to isolate and analyze the brain’s basic elements (what the atoms of the mind were) (sensations, feelings, images, affections). founding fathers = Wilhelm Wundt (concept) and Edward Titchener (coined Introspection)

tried to train patients to see into their own minds

Introspection = analysis of patients from raw facts rather than interpretation (problematic due fact that everyone responds differently to things)

what is Functionalism: what is the mind for

Coined by William James, the concept of the mind was more of a stream of consciousness. He was heavily influenced by Darwin - believed that our traits and psychology had evolved (same way favourable traits did in evolution). William James thought the only way we could understand psychology is by identifying what functions emotions serve - what becomes important through evolution (why we have these thoughts, are they helpful in some way)

compare and contrast functionalism and structuralism

• American belief functionalism, coined by William James (influenced by Darwin), wanted to understand why we have the feelings that we do, and what functions they serve for us. Believed that natural selection had also influenced our minds and thoughts to be favourable traits for us.

• Europeans believed in Structuralism. Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener worked together to create structuralism and introspection (relating to realism in its analysis of behaviour)

hysteria

a loss of function that has no obvious physical origin. discovered by Physiologists Jean Martin Charcot and Pierre Janet by testing patients and learning their conditions went away when under hypnosis

who is Sigmund freud and what did he bring to psychology?

Sigmund Freud (1856-1989) studied with Jean Martin Charcot, then returned to Vienna to work on patients with nervous disorders. (learned about hysteria)

Psychoanalysis - a therapy that aims to give people insight into the contents of their unconscious mind

• found that many patients experience childhood trauma and suppress it into their “unconscious” (part of their mind so they forget)

  • Psychoanalytic theory - influence of unconscious on feelings, thoughts and behaviours

• believed only way to confront these topics was through psychoanalysis (therapy that aims to give people insight into their unconscious minds)

  • patients’ dreams/free associations of words/situations gave answers to their consciousness

• beginning of talk therapy! - used by many clinical physicians, but experimental psychologists didn’t

• recognized mental illness as a physical illness, caused by external events and can be cured = not a personal failure!

who was John Broadus Watson and what did he bring to psychology

John Broadus Watson studied rats,

• thought psychology should be seen as a real science, and therefore tested it like one.

  • Focused on what people DO rather than what we FEEL or THINK.

  • called this approach Behaviourism- restricts scientific inquiry to observable behaviour.

  • Argued that psychology is the relationship between stimuli and response (nothing less or more).

  • By the end of the 1930’s experimental psychology became Behaviourism

who was Burrhus Frederick Skinner and what did he bring to psychology

• wanted to expand on John Broadus Watson's idea of behaviourism

• created “Skinner’s box” containing a lever that delivered food to lab rats inside when pushed + a cumulative recorder which recorded the number of times it was triggered

• resulted in the Principal of Reinforcement

  • any behaviour that is rewarded will be repeated, any that is not will not be repeated - Radical Behaviouralism

• Radical Behaviourism - used in classrooms, therapy offices, and government policies

• believed all behaviour is a sum of its consequences

who was Max Mertheimer and what did he bring to psychology

• opposed to behaviourism/Skinner.

• studied how people perceive motion- discovered people mistake the amount of flashing lights when time became a constraint (Illusory Motion mind makes theories about how the world works, using data collected from sensory)

  • Gestalt (whole) Psychology approach to psych that emphasizes how the mind creates perceptual experience

• believed that human problem-solving happens through insightful restructuring rather than conditioned responses (stimuli + responses)

Who is Sir Fredrick Bartlett and what did he bring to psychology

• disagreed with behaviouralism/skinner

• studied why people remember things as they weren’t

  • made patients read stories than repeat story/answer questions about it later - found that people remember what they think they are expected to read rather than what it is (read story about exotic seal hunting, but remembered it as fishing)

• rejected behaviourism due to

  1. its theory for only observing behaviour rather than speculating internal processes. Bartlett thought we should understand how people interpret, think and remember info

  2. idea that memory is conditioning (stimuli + response), Bartlett believed that memory can be reconstructed

who is Jean Piaget and what did they bring to psychology

• studied the development of children’s minds

  • created area of experimental psych - developmental psych - study of the ways in which psychological phenomena change over the life span

• didn’t appreciate behaviouralism/skinner (believed in internal processes such as reasoning, classification and perspective-taking)

explain the difference between american and european perspectives on Behaviouralism with examples

American -

• Ivan Pavlov/Burrhus Fredrick Skinner believed in studying what people DO rather than how they FEEL or THINK

• created Skinner’s box - a box with mice and a food lever, and a recorder for the number of times the lever was pushed for food - introducing Radical Behaviourism (ideology that we are conditioned by consequences and rewards)

• ideology that psychology is based on Stimuli + responses

European -

• practicing what behaviourism went against - studying perception, memories, and judgements to understand people’s minds

• Jean Piaget studied the development of children’s minds over a time, understanding, perspective, and reasoning

• Sir Fredrick Bartlett tested people’s memory and understanding by getting patients to read and answer questions/recount a story after a period of time.

• Max Mertheimer - tested on patients by flashing lights, found that when time was a constraint, people’s interpretation of the number of lights changed. Gestalt Psychology - emphasizes how mind creates perceptual experience to make sense of sensory experiences

who is Ivan Pavlov and what did he bring to psychology

believed that psychology is the behaviour between Stimuli and response. studied dogs and how they salivated when hearing footsteps (indicating food)

what is social psych

The study of the causes and consequences of sociality. consists of how people form stereotypes, prejudices, persuade people into changing opinions, or make identities from social groups

Who is Kurt Lewin, and what did he bring to psychology

studied why we treat each other the way we do - Social Psychology

• studied group dynamics, leadership, communication, attitude, change and social prejudice

• believed that peoples behaviour isn’t a product of the environment but their subjective construal of it (what they think of the stimuli rather than depend on it)

what is Humanism and who brought it to psychology

• coined by Carl Rogers (prioritized client-centred therapy) and Abraham Maslow (innate drive to reach fullest potential = self-actualization. he put on top of Hierarchy of Needs)

• focused on ways current environments nurture or limit growth, and the importance of having the needs for love and acceptance satisfied

• looks at people holistically, considering thoughts, feelings, behaviours, relationships and experiences rather than breaking them into parts

• against behaviourism (emphasized observable behaviour) /psychoanalysis (based on unconscious conflicts).

• humanistic psychology emphasizes free will, personal growth, and goodness in people

• how we help people reach their individual needs

• revived interest in the study of mental processes