Mexico

Mestizos

Mexicans of mixed European and indigenous blood, who make up the vast majority of Mexico's population

Criollos

Mexican-born descendants of Spaniards during the period of Spanish colonial rule

Porfirio Diaz

a dominant political figure from 1876-1910. Backed liberal reforms of Juarez and fought to expel the French imposed monarchy, then embrace conservative ideas to gain support from the elites and maintain power.

Imposed a brutal authoritarian regime (the Porfiriato). Helped stabilize the country, grow the economy, and was the first to impose state power on remote areas.

Constitution of 1917

The document established by the Mexican Revolution that continues to regulate Mexico's political regime
Written by middle-class mestizo professionals who had suffered under the Diaz dictatorship. Adopted federalism and put restrictions on reelections and foreign ownership in Mexico

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

An agreement between Canada, Mexico, and the United States that liberalizes trade between the three countries. Salmas's continuation of PRI's gradual adoption of a neoliberal economic program

renegotiated in 2020 and replaced with the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA).

Non-reelection Principle

principle in Mexican politics that bars politicians from holding office for two consecutive terms. Established after Porfirio dominated presidency

Chamber of Deputies

the lower house of Mexico's bicameral legislature.

Composed of 500 members (Majority - 251, Amendment - 335)

Mixed electoral system (300 SMD plurality, 200 proportional rep. seats (2% party threshold, gender quota))

has the power to pass laws, levy taxes, and verify election outcomes

Senate

The upper house of Mexico's bicameral legislature.

Composed of 128 members: majority = 65, Amendment = 86.

96 SMD plurality (3 per state - 64 first majority, 42 relative minority). Additional 32 selected from national list on basis of proportional representation (2% party threshold, gender quota must be met)

Fewer powers, but can confirm the president's appointments, approve treaties, hold impeachment trials, and approve federal intervention in state matters

National Supreme Court of Justice

the highest court of the Mexican judiciary. Composed of 11 supreme court justices that are appointed by the president and confirmed by 2/3 of the senate. 15-year terms.

formal powers

1. judicial independence - oversees lower courts

2. judicial review - 1/3 of lower house for request, supermajority to throw out law

Challenges: corruption (esp. at local level), transition from inquisition style to jury model, weak rule of law

Federal Electoral Institute (IFE)

An independent agency/multiparty commission that regulates elections in Mexico; created in 1996 to end decades of electoral fraud

oversees fair elections, transparent balloting and collection, Voter ID Cards
Media provides free coverage to all parties
Nation parties provided equal public finance; limitations to campaign funding.

National Electoral Institute (INE)

an independent organization responsible for organizing elections and ensuring fair electoral processes in Mexico

replaced IFE in 2014, restructures IFE to a nationally controlled organization
Organizes and runs federal elections as well as local elections
Oversight of party financing and activities

Direct Plurality Vote

The election of officials by the electorate in a single, plurality election contest; the winner of that election is the winner of the office (NO runoff election)

Municipios

county-level governments in Mexican states

Patron-client Relationships

powerful government officials delivered state services and access to power in exchange for the delivery of political support

Camarillas

Vast informal networks of personal royalty that operates as powerful political cliques.

Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN)

A largely Mayan rebel group that staged an uprising in 1994, demanding political reform and greater rights for Mexico's indigenous people

Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)

The political economic model followed during the authoritarian regime of the PRI, in which the domestic economy was protected by high tariffs in order to promote industrial growth

Structural Adjustment Programs

a set of economic policies imposed by international financial institutions, such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), on developing countries in exchange for financial assistance.

Often involves implementing austerity measures, privatizing state-owned enterprises, and liberalizing trade

PEMEX

Mexico's powerful state-owned oil monopoly. Nationalized by President Lazaro Cardenas (1934-40) to help strengthen Mexico

United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA)

free-trade treaty that replaces NAFTA in 2018.

Similar, but reduced some tariffs, required a higher percentage of products be produced in North America, and required duty-free goods to be produced by workers making a higher hourly wage

Televisa

Mexico's largest media conglomerate, which for decades enjoyed a close relationship with the PRI

Telmex

The Mexican phone company; when U.S. resident buys this stock, purchase increases net capital flow

Mexico's system of government

democracy

Mexico's division of power

federal

Mexico's executive system

presidential

Mexico's legislature

National Congress

the National Congress is

bicameral
lower house: Chamber of Deputies
upper house: Senate

Executive of Mexico

the president - head of state and gov't

• direct plurality vote. Single 6-year terms. Can be impeached/removed with a 2/3 vote in both congressional houses

• Roles: chief executive, commander in chief, head of civil service, execute policy

Checks and balances:

• term limits, senate confirms appointments, 2/3 vote override

• introduce/veto legislation, controls cabinet, appoint justices, make treaties

the cabinet of Mexico

appointed by the president. Oversees various gov't departments and helps with policy decision making
can be removed by the president

historically very corrupt and inefficient.
Merit-based, but still struggles (cartel influence, natural disasters, failed MORENA reforms, internat. issues)

Mexico's judiciary

National Supreme Court of Justice

• 11 justices appointed by the pres, confirmed by 2/3 vote of senate. 15-year terms

Powers:

• Judicial review: upon request of 1/3 of lower house. Striking down laws requires supermajority of 8 justices

• Judicial Independence: Federal Judicial Council oversees lower federal courts

The nation of Mexico

Very diverse geography

• Rainforest, Deserts, High Elevation Mountain Ranges, Volcanoes

32 States 128 Million People

• Very Diverse (60% Mestizo, 30% Indigenous)

• 83% Catholic

North mostly urban (wealthier) (80%) South mostly rural very poor

Mexican War of Independence (1810-21)

11 years of violent push back on imperial Spanish rule. Influenced by US and French revolutions

Wealthy conservative landholders assumed power (Economically and politically unstable, weak central gov't rules by military)

Iturbide made himself emperor in 1822. Overthrown and executed by caudillo, Santa Ana (national military leader)

Mexican-American War (1846-48)

War caused by a territorial dispute between the U.S. and Mexico that led to Mexico ceding land to the U.S.

Disarray in centralized leadership facing local challenges made state weak.

Democratic reform period (1857-67)

President Benito Juarez

• centralize, modernize

• progressive constitution w/ democratization

The Porfiriato

brutal authoritarian regime established by General Porfirio Diaz

• support from elites by incorporating conservative ideas

• 1st period of political stability since independence

• state influence in economic liberalization, growth, industrialism, etc

Mexican Revolution (1910-17)

middle class (Franciso Madero) vs radical reformers (Emiliano Zapata (S), Francisco Villa (N))
- anti influence of catholic church

Mid class: anti dictator, more democracy, capitalism
Reformers: made up of peasant armies, reform agrarian system

Mexico's regime

pre-2000s: authoritarian state run by single party (PRI) Since 2000: electoral democracy

• fair, competitive elections

• press freedom seriously lacking

• weak rule of law

legitimacy of Mexico

rational-legal: Constitution of 1917

• non reelection

• land rights

• anti-religious influence

Parties provide for/promote legitimacy

• religion = traditional legitimacy

• call back to the goals of the Mex. Rev. (Zapatistas, PRI, PRD)

Government institutions of Mexico

1. Constitution of 1917

• many elements of the US Constitution (Separation of powers, C&Bs, federalism)

• real democracy w/ establishment of Federal Election Institute (IFE) in 1988

2. Federal system

• 32 states w/ constitutions, governors, unicameral legislatures, and directly elected local gov'ts

Coercive institutions of Mexico

history of military weakness (Mex-Amer War, Revolution, War on Drugs, failure to put down Zapatista Movement, Installation of Austrian Emperor Maximilian by France)

Use of SEDENA to spy on opposition, gather data on journalists, activists, etc

Gender Parity Law

All political parties must field 50% female candidates.

mixed electoral system

Utilizes both SMDs AND proportional representation

Governability Formulas

increases competition and legitimacy

1. No party can have more than 300 seats in Chamber of Deputies

2. No party can have more than 8% of seats over its national vote count.

• ex): Win 35% of vote, not allowed to have more than 43% of total seats in Chamber of Deputies.

Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI)

dominant, dictatorial party of Mexico after the Revolution. controlled Mexico in 1929-2000

-Centrist party that leans on roots of the Revolution
-Struggling to maintain influence at all levels
-older party, less educated, rural.
- co-opted the army and most other groups/interests

goal: end political violence through control of the political system

-president = monarch w/ so much party control. Seen as authoritarian, but didn't often need violence or coercive measures

Partido de la Revolucion Democratica (PRD)

-Leftists party in opposition to income inequality caused by economic liberalization
-Provided serious challenges but has lost group to splinter parties.

National Regeneration Movement (MORENA)

Left-wing party against neoliberal policies, protect civil liberties of indigenous groups, fight corruption

Maintaining power, but has begun to waiver

Partido Accion Nacional (PAN)

Opposition party to the PRI. Right-wing, religious rooted conservatism

• Strong in northern Mexico, controls 11 state governorships.

• Free-market economy, social conservatism

Interest Groups/civil society

strengthened government control/influence through clientelism and corporatism.

Today there is a diverse network of interest groups, unions, professional, and economic organizations.

80% of Mexicans are afraid to or hesitant to participate in civic organizations

social cleavages

Geographic and economic - Industry v. Agriculture (N vs S Mexico)

• Urban and Rural

• Rich and Poor (Indigenous movements - EZLN (Zapatistas) revolting, The National Indigenous Congress)

Mexican media

Historically state-owned/run. Still many strong controls today (Election reforms require free airtime to all candidates, no private political advertising)

Cell service and social media controlled by Telcel

Huge propaganda push (Daily press conferences, Fact checking is a big deal)

freedom is limited - coverage of cartels, local/state corruption, and abuse of power have led to an increase in violence against journalist (up 85%)

citizenship

Law of Blood or Law of Soil (presidents must be natural born)
Naturalization Process (Cannot hold office of any kind)

political participation

Frequent elections at all levels of government

Most Mexicans claimed in multiple surveys that they'd "never" participate in boycotts, petitioning, or peacefully protest.

Social Movements

Mostly led by young population, median age is around 28.

The Mexico 68 - student protests before Mexico City Olympics in 1968 against the PRI. Military opened fire, jailed thousands of students.
Yo Soy 132 - social media movement
• Human Rights Movements (Zapatistas, CNI)

Mixed political economy

Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) for liberalization
(World Bank, IMF loans to promote development, joined NAFTA and manufacturing has grown through FDI)

PACT for MEXICO (Govt-owned oil industry, PEMEX - Starting to open to foreign investment, working with foreign ventures while maintaining govt control.)
Anti-monopoly in telecommunications - Breaking up Telcel and Telmex and allowing for competition

Poverty in Mexico

Movement to improve education system, create professional standards, and reach more rural populations

Payment programs for 46% of population that is in poverty

Crime in Mexico

Drug Cartels Corruption, violence, kidnappings National Police Force, Oral Trial system, crop substitution not working well.