Sociology of Stratification, Gender, Race, and Health: Key Concepts and Theories

stratification

The hierarchical organization of society into groups with differing levels of power, prestige, status, and economic resources.

socioeconomic status

An individual's position in a stratified social order.

upper class

Income from returns on investments rather than wages.

class (Marx's definition)

By one's relationship to the means of production—proletariat (workers) vs. bourgeoisie (owners).

dialectical materialism

History as driven by conflict over material resources.

Weber's key idea about class

Class is based on market opportunities and is gradated, not purely relational.

Hegel's master-slave dialectic

A two-way relationship showing evolving notions of inequality leading toward equality.

three types of equality

Opportunity, condition, and outcome.

'free rider' problem

When multiple people share responsibility, individuals may shirk effort, hoping others will contribute.

major systems of stratification

Caste, estate, class, status hierarchy, and elite-mass dichotomy.

cultural capital

Non-financial social assets (institutionalized, objectified, embodied) that promote social mobility.

sex, gender, and sexuality

Sex: biological differences; Gender: social identity tied to sex; Sexuality: desire and sexual behavior.

essentialism

Explaining social phenomena as biologically determined.

functionalism about gender

Society's parts work together for stability; sex roles serve a social function (Parsons' sex role theory).

conflict theorists about gender

Patriarchal capitalism benefits from women's subordination.

'doing gender'

Gender is created and reinforced through everyday interactions (West & Zimmerman).

intersectionality

Overlapping systems of identity and oppression that interact (e.g., race, class, gender).

'glass ceiling'

Invisible barriers preventing women from reaching top positions.

'glass elevator'

Men's faster promotion in female-dominated fields.

emotional labor

Managing emotions to meet job expectations (Arlie Hochschild).

heteronormativity

The belief that heterosexuality is the default norm.

race and ethnicity

Race: perceived physical traits and shared bloodlines; Ethnicity: shared culture, ancestry, and voluntary identification.

three beliefs of racist thinking

1. Humans divided into distinct bloodlines. 2. Traits linked to culture/ability.

Gender

Created and reinforced through everyday interactions (West & Zimmerman).

Glass ceiling

Invisible barriers preventing women from reaching top positions.

Glass elevator

Men's faster promotion in female-dominated fields.

Scientific racism

19th-century theories using pseudoscience to justify racial hierarchies.

Ethnocentrism

Belief that one's culture is superior and the standard for others.

One-drop rule

One drop of Black ancestry makes a person Black.

Racialization

Forming new racial identities around previously unmarked groups.

Institutional racism

Policies/practices that appear neutral but perpetuate inequality.

Redlining

1930s practice denying loans to minority neighborhoods, fueling segregation.

Privilege

Unearned advantages granted to specific social groups.

Absolute and relative poverty

Absolute: below subsistence level; Relative: below a percentage of median income.

U.S. poverty rate calculation

Based on Mollie Orshansky's 1960s food-cost formula (outdated today).

Culture of poverty

Idea that poor people adopt survival practices differing from mainstream norms.

Underclass

The persistently poor, viewed as deviant or dangerous.

Perverse incentive

A benefit that encourages counterproductive behavior (e.g., welfare discouraging work).

Universal basic income (UBI)

Unconditional regular income for all adults.

Moving to Opportunity study

Moving to better neighborhoods improves children's outcomes.

Food insecurity

Inability to provide adequate food due to lack of resources.

California's homelessness crisis

High housing costs—90% lost homes within same state, 75% in same county.

Doctors' prestige

They provide valued services (health), have limited entry, and wield social/political power.

Sick role

Rights: exemption from roles, not blamed; Obligations: try to recover, seek help (Parsons).

Medicalization

Defining nonmedical issues as medical (e.g., addiction, ADHD).

Medicare vs Medicaid

Medicare: for those 65+; Medicaid: income-based covering long-term care.

Morbidity vs mortality

Morbidity = illness; Mortality = death rate.

Social determinants of health

Who you are, where you live/work, income, and social status.

Health inequality theories

Psychosocial, materialist, and fundamental causes.

Medical racism

Bias and systemic inequality in healthcare (e.g., Tuskegee Study, race-based eGFR).

COVID-19 and health inequality

Higher infection and death rates among people of color due to structural inequities.