motor learning and Development

Action-slips

performance related errors that typically occur when the personal is not consciously attending to the movement

aging

a process or group of processes occurring in living organisms that with the passage of time, lead to loss of adaptability, functional impairment, and eventually death

cephalocaudal

proceeding from the head to distal structurers development begins with the head, and distal structure grow more slowly

Coarticulation

Simultaneous motions that occur in sequential tacks

control

manipulation of movements in such a way as to meet the demands of a task

coordination

the constraint of the number of degrees of freedom to decrease the complexity of the movement task to produce a movement pattern and achieve a task goal

degrees of freedom

the number of independent elements that must be constrained to produce coordination motion

maturation

the fixed transition or order of progression that enables a person to progress to higher levels of function

motor behavior

an umbrella term for the fields of motor control, motor learning, and motor development

Motor competence

the measurement aspect of movement, either product or process

motor control

the underlying neural, physical, and behavioral process of movement

motor development

the products and underlying processes of motor behavior changes across the life span

motor learning

the process involved in the acquisition of a motor skill and the factors that enhance or inhibit the capability to perform a motor skill

motor skill

voluntary, goal- oriented physical elements that enable movements

ontogeny

the level of development occurring over the life span of one individual

Perceputal motor integration problems

line of research in motor control that examines how perception and motor control are integrated

Serial order problem

the study of the importance of the sequencing, order, and timing of movement behaviors

Spoonerisms

speech errors that occur because of the exchanging letters in adjacent words

Affordances

The action possibilities of the environment and task in relation to the perveiver’s own capabilities

Attractor

a preferred state of stability toward which a system spontaneously shifts (dynamic systems approach)

Closed loop Control

A type of control system that provides the opportunity to make continuous corrections based on feedback received during the movement

Constraints

Boundaries that limit a person’s movement capabilities

Constraints model

A model of behavior asserting that coordination is developed by changing constraints imposed by the interaction of the individual with the environment

Control Parameters

Variables that induce a shift from the current attractor state to a new attractor state

Dynamic system approach

a perspective that addresses the interplay of the environment, task, and individual on skilled movement. Movement is the result of self-organization of many systems, owing to interactions across these constraints.

Ecological approach

A motor development or learning perspective that rejects the hierarchical view of the brain as the ultimate controller of movement. This perspective stresses the role of the environment as it interacts with the individual to produce fluid movement.

Environmental constraints

constraints that are external to the mover

Functional Constraints

Individual constraints imposed by psychological variables such as motivation, arousal, and intellect

Generalized motor programs

A representation of a pattern of movements that is modifiable to produce movement outcome, enables the production of skilled movement in the information processing theory

Individual Constraints

Boundaries imposed by the organism itself. Also see structural constraints and functional constraints.

Information processing theory

one of the theoretical constructs of motor behavior it proposes that the brain receives, processes, and interprets information to send signals to produce skilled coordination movements, like how a computer functions.

Invariant features

Variables that cannot be modified between attempts (including the sequence of movements, relative force, and relative timing)

Open loop control

A type of control systems for error correction that produces rapid, discrete movements, relative force, and relative timing.

Parameters

Features that can be modified during the execution of a movement pattern (including muscle selection, overall force, and overall duration)

Perception

The act of attaching meaning to something

Phase shift

The change in a state that causes a shift or reorganization to a new attractor state

Physical Environmental constraints

External conditions that can aid or hinder movement patterns

Rate limiter

A control parameter that limits or hinders performance

Schemas

Rules or relationships developed through accmulated experiences within a generalized motor program

Self organization

A system’s ability to change state or acquire a new structure or pattern of movement

sociocultural environmental constraints

Constraints imposed by social and cultural norms and pressure

Speed accuracy trade off

the tendency for accuracy to be compromised when speed is increased or for speed to be sacrificed when one if focused on accuracy (movement is slowed down)

structural constraints

Individual constraints imposed by physical characteristics such as gender, height, weight, and body makeup

Task constraints

Imposed by the task itself, including the goals of the movement, rules, and equipment

Action plan profile

A preplanned movement in response to a context-specific situation based on prior knowledge and experience often phrased as an if-then statement

Anxiety

An emotional response to a perceived threat; can involve cognitive concerns or physiological reactions

Arousal

A general state of activation on excitability

broad width of focus

attending to the larger context such as scanning the field

central limited capacity

a theory suggesting that human attention is limited because the central nervous system does not have endless space in which to process information

central resource capacity theory

perspective on attention that is a more flexible system than the single channel filter theories, in which information-processing capacity can expand based on the individual, task, and situation

Choice reaction time (Choice RT)

Time needed to react when there is more than one stimulus

Constrained action hypothesis

Perspective on attentional focus that posited that an internal focus of attention constrains the motor system, which prevents the motor program from running automatically whereas an external focus of attention faciliates this autom

Cue-utilization hypothesis

The hypothesis that the level of arousal influences attentional focus

Current event profile

A preplanned movement in response to a context specific situation based on current performance conditions

Cutaneous receptors

Located in the skin; provide proprioceptive information in regard to temperature, pain, and pressure

dynamic visual acuity

the ability to distinguish moving objects

event anticipation

anticipating what the stimulus will be

External Direction of focus

Attentional focus that is directed in the environment, such as focusing on the putt

Exteroception

Sensory information regarding the external environment, such as focusing on the putt

Golgi tendon organs

Located at the junction of the muscle and the tendon; respond to the intensity of the muscular contraction, providing proprioceptive information

Hick’s law

A logarithmic relationship between the number of stimulus-response between alternatives and reaction time, indicating that as the number of S-R alternarives increases reaction time increases at a constant rate

Interference

A limitation on performance due to exceeding one’s attentional capacity

Internal direction of focus

attentional focus that is directed within the person, such as visualizing the movement

Inverted U hypothesis

the ideas that arousal and performance are related such that optimal performance is seen at a moderate level of arousal

Joint receptors

Located in the joint capsules provide proprioceptive information regarding joint position and fire when the joint is in extreme positions to serve as a protective function

Long-term memory

Information that is retained in memory relatively permanently

memory

The ability to recall things; allows us to benefit from experience

Movement time

The obervable movement that is the time from the initiation of the movement until it has been completed

Multiple resource theories

Perspectives of attention that suggest that humans have several attention mechanisms, each with limited capacity

muscle spindles

located within the muscle belly; provide proprioceptive information about motion and joint positioning and are most active when muscles is stretched

Narrow width of focus

attending to specific cues in the environment such as focusing on a specific player

precues

cues in the environment that provide information about the intentions of an individual in a motor performance content

proprioception

provides sensory information about the state or the body itself including the sense of movements and the relationship of body parts to one another

psychological refractory period

time delay that occurs when two stimuli occur in quick succession. The stimuli require different responses; processing a response to the first stimulus delays the response to the second stimulus

reaction time

the measure of the time between the presentation of a stimulus and the initiation of a motor response

Response time

the measure of the time between the presentation of a stimulus and the completion of the movement response (reaction time plus movement time)

selective attention

the ability to focus on selected sensory information while ignoring irrelevent information

self invoking trigger hypothesis

a perspective on attentional focus that suggested an internal focus of attention triggers people to engage in self-evaluation and self-regulatory processes to gain control over thoughts and feelings

Short-term memory

Information that is only stored in memory for relatively short period of time (20-30 sec)

Single channel filter theories

attention perspectives that propose a serial processing of tasks and the occurrence of a bottleneck at some point in information processing a point at which the system can process only one task at a time

state anxiety

arousal level at a single point in time

static visual acuity

the ability to clearly see a stationary image: commonly assessed using the snellen eye chart

Stimulus response (R-S) compatibility

the amount of association between a stimulus and response which can also affect RT

Temporal Anticipation

anticipating when the stimulus will occur (when the pitcher will throw the pitch)

Trait anxiety

Predisposition for anxiety in threating situations

Vestibular apparatus

located in the inner ear provides proprioceptive information by detecting head motion and orientation of the head with respect to gravity

working memory

performs an active role including temporarily storing recently presented material, retrieving information from long term memory, storage to solve problems and making decisions.

abilities

genetically predetermined characteristics that affect movement performance such as agility, coordination, strength, and flexibility

Body orientation

classified as either body transport or body stability

capability

In regard to motor skill acquisition a quality that implies that skilled behavior may occur if the conditions are favorable

closed skills

skills used in a task that is done in a stable enviorment in which objects or events are stationary

Cognitive skill

Intellectual skills that enable a performer to make decisions and solve problems

Continuous motor skill

Motor skills that do not have a clearly defined beginning or end point (swimming, running)

discrete motor skill

Motor skills that are short in duration and have clearly defined beginning and end points (throwing, catching, kicking)

externally paced tasks

Tasks performed in response to external stimuli (a batter responding to a ptich)

Fine motor skills

Skills in which precise movements are critical for performing with increased accuracy and control and which use smaller muscle groups

Fleishman’s taxonomy

a classification system for motor skills that identifies the underlying motor abilities necessary to perform successfully

Fundamental motor skill

Basic motor skills (throwing, jumping, and striking) that are typically acquired by around the age of seven

General Motor ability

An early hypothesis that there is only one motor ability

Gentile’s taxonomy

Motor skill taxonomy that uses two main categories-the environmental context and the action requirements to assist practitioners with program development