NCE Weak Spots

p-value

A p-value less than .05 indicates statistically significant results and suggests rejecting the null hypothesis.

Null Hypothesis (H₀)

States there is no significant relationship or difference between variables.

Alternative Hypothesis (H₁)

States there is a significant relationship or difference between variables.

Type I Error

Rejecting a true null hypothesis; false positive.

Type II Error

Failing to reject a false null hypothesis; false negative.

Reliability

The consistency or stability of a measurement over time.

Validity

The degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

Internal Validity

The extent to which changes in the dependent variable are caused by the independent variable.

External Validity

The degree to which study results can be generalized to other populations.

Correlation

Describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables; does not imply causation.

Positive Correlation

As one variable increases, the other also increases.

Negative Correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

Ranges from -1.00 to +1.00; values closer to ±1 indicate stronger relationships.

Experimental Research

Uses random assignment and manipulation of variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

The variable measured by the researcher.

Random Sampling

Selecting participants so everyone has an equal chance of being included.

Random Assignment

Randomly assigning participants to groups to reduce bias.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a set of scores.

Median

The middle score in an ordered distribution.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score.

Standard Deviation

A measure of how spread out scores are around the mean.

Nominal Scale

Categorical data with no numerical order (e.g., eye color).

Ordinal Scale

Ranked data without equal intervals (e.g., class rank).

Interval Scale

Equal intervals but no true zero (e.g., temperature in Celsius).

Ratio Scale

Equal intervals with a true zero (e.g., height, weight, age).

Effect Size

Indicates the magnitude or practical significance of a research finding.

Confounding Variable

An outside variable that may influence the dependent variable.

Test-Retest Reliability

Consistency of test scores over time.

Interrater Reliability

The degree of agreement between different evaluators.

Content Validity

The extent to which a test covers all aspects of the construct.

Construct Validity

The extent to which a test measures the theoretical construct it was designed to assess.

Criterion Validity

How well a test predicts an outcome or correlates with another measure.

Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust

Birth to 18 months; develops hope through consistent caregiving.

Erikson: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

18 months to 3 years; develops independence and self-control.

Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt

3 to 6 years; develops purpose through initiating activities.

Erikson: Industry vs. Inferiority

6 to 12 years; develops competence through school and achievement.

Erikson: Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescence; develops a stable sense of self and identity.

Erikson: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adulthood; develops close, committed relationships.

Erikson: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Middle adulthood; contributes to society and future generations.

Erikson: Integrity vs. Despair

Late adulthood; reflects on life with acceptance or regret.

Bowen Family Systems Theory

Focuses on intergenerational family patterns and emotional processes.

Differentiation of Self

The ability to maintain one's identity while remaining emotionally connected to family.

Triangles

A three-person relationship system that reduces anxiety but can maintain dysfunction.

Family Projection Process

Parents transmit emotional problems to their children.

Multigenerational Transmission Process

Patterns of functioning are passed through generations.

Emotional Cutoff

Managing unresolved family issues by distancing oneself emotionally or physically.

Sibling Position

Birth order influences personality and family roles.

Societal Emotional Process

Societal stress affects family functioning.

Advanced Empathy

Reflecting deeper feelings or meanings the client has implied but not directly stated.

Reflection of Feeling

Restating the client's expressed emotions.

Paraphrasing

Restating the client's content in fewer words.

Summarization

Combining themes and important points discussed over time.

Interpretation

Offering a new meaning or perspective for the client's consideration.

Confrontation

Pointing out discrepancies between a client's words, feelings, or behaviors.

Immediacy

Discussing what is occurring in the counselor-client relationship in the present moment.

Minimal Encouragers

Brief responses that encourage the client to continue speaking (e.g., "Go on," "I see.").

Open-Ended Question

Encourages elaboration and exploration.

Closed Question

Can typically be answered with one word or a short response.

Reflection of Content

Restates the factual information shared by the client.

Reflection of Meaning

Highlights the significance or values underlying the client's experience.

Genuineness

The counselor is authentic and congruent.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Accepting the client without judgment.

Accurate Empathy

Understanding and communicating the client's feelings and perspective.

Silence

A counseling skill that allows clients time to think and process emotions.

Yalom: Universality

Recognizing that others share similar struggles.

Yalom: Instillation of Hope

Seeing improvement in others increases optimism.

Yalom: Altruism

Helping others promotes healing.

Yalom: Catharsis

Emotional release through expressing feelings.

Yalom: Cohesiveness

The sense of belonging and acceptance within the group.

Stages of Change: Precontemplation

No recognition of a problem.

Stages of Change: Contemplation

Acknowledges the problem but is not yet committed to change.

Stages of Change: Preparation

Planning to take action soon.

Stages of Change: Action

Actively making behavioral changes.

Stages of Change: Maintenance

Sustaining change and preventing relapse.