3. Unification of Italy (1849-1871)

Count Camillo di Cavour

• Background: A statesman and leading architect of Italian unification, Cavour was a Piedmontese nobleman and the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia. His political manoeuvres were built upon the earlier era of change and unrest in Italy between 1815 and 1849.

• Political Strategy: Cavour's approach combined diplomacy and strategic alliances, aiming to diminish Austrian influence in Italy and promote Sardinian leadership in the unification process.

• Key Achievements:

  • Economic and Administrative Reforms: Strengthened Piedmont-Sardinia’s economy and military, making it the focal point of unification.

  • Alliance with France (Plombières Agreement, 1858): Secured French support against Austria in exchange for territories.

  • Annexation of Territories: Successfully incorporated Lombardy, Emilia, Tuscany, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies into the Kingdom of Sardinia.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

• Background: A renowned revolutionary and military leader, Garibaldi’s charisma and guerrilla tactics were instrumental in unifying the southern part of Italy. His efforts complemented the broader context of Bismarck's policies which also aimed at national unification in Germany, showcasing a parallel movement in Europe.

• Expedition of the Thousand (1860): Led 1,000 Redshirts in a daring campaign to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

• Contribution: His victories were crucial in merging the southern regions with the Kingdom of Sardinia.

The Role of Foreign Influence

• French Support: Napoleon III’s aid was vital in the Second Italian War of Independence, leading to the defeat of Austria and the cession of Lombardy. This external support was a common theme in the period, as seen in the broader European context, such as the reform era of Alexander II in Russia.

• Austrian Influence: The decline of Austrian power in Italy accelerated the unification process.

• British Neutrality: Britain's neutral stance indirectly supported the unification by not intervening against it.

Major Events and Their Impacts

Second Italian War of Independence (1859)

• Conflict: Fought between the Franco-Sardinian alliance and Austria.

• Outcomes: Led to the Peace of Zurich, with Austria ceding Lombardy to Sardinia and indirectly facilitating the annexation of central Italian duchies.

Annexation of Central Italian Duchies (1860)

• Popular Uprisings and Plebiscites: The people in Modena, Parma, Tuscany, and the Papal States voted to join the Kingdom of Sardinia.

• Significance: Demonstrated the popular support for unification and Cavour’s diplomatic skill.

Expedition of the Thousand (1860)

• Garibaldi's Leadership: His campaign in Sicily and Naples unified the southern regions with Sardinia.

• Legacy: Garibaldi became a national hero, symbolizing the unification movement.

Formation of the Kingdom of Italy (1861)

• Proclamation: Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed the king of a united Italy, excluding Rome and Venetia.

• Political Structure: Established a constitutional monarchy, although it was limited in terms of real democracy.

Third Italian War of Independence (1866)

• Context: Allied with Prussia in its war against Austria.

• Outcome: Gained Venetia after Austria's defeat, nearing the completion of unification.

Capture of Rome (1870)

• Opportunity: The Franco-Prussian War led to the withdrawal of French troops protecting the Papal States.

• Completion of Unification: In 1871, Rome was annexed, becoming the capital of the newly unified Italy.

Challenges and Controversies

Regional Disparities

• Economic and Cultural Differences: The north-south divide posed significant challenges in terms of economic integration and cultural unity.

Balancing Foreign Interests

• Diplomatic Maneuvering: Navigating the complex web of European alliances and rivalries was crucial to the unification process, a challenge not unique to Italy, as explored in the study of enlightened despots across Europe.

Internal Conflicts

• Monarchist vs Republican Ideals: Tensions between supporters of a unified monarchy and advocates of a republican form of government.

• Mazzini’s Vision: Although Mazzini’s dream of a republican Italy was not realised, his ideas of a unified Italy inspired many.

Economic and Social Impact

Industrial and Economic Development

• Post-Unification Challenges: Initial economic difficulties due to regional disparities, but gradual industrial growth, particularly in the north.

Social Changes

• National Identity: The unification process fostered a sense of Italian national identity.

• Challenges in Governance: The new kingdom faced significant challenges in establishing effective governance and dealing with regional loyalties.