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Book of Revelation
A biblical text that foresaw the end of the world, which became popular in Europe during the later Middle Ages due to experiences of disease, war, famine, and death.
The Black Death
A deadly plague that struck Europe in 1347, killing approximately one-third of the population and spread by the bacteria Yersinia Pestis through fleas on rats.
Great Famine
A severe famine in Europe from 1315-1322 caused by poor harvests and climate change, leading to high food prices, low production, and social consequences like abandonment of homesteads and increased crime.
Noble Violence
A common feature of late medieval life where aristocratic violence was depicted, as seen in a French manuscript illumination showing armored knights killing peasants.
Little Ice Age
A period from 1300-1800 characterized by colder temperatures, affecting the economy with lower food production and causing social disruptions like the Great Famine and the Black Death.
Bubonic Plague
A form of the Black Death characterized by symptoms like lymph node growth, black spots on the skin, and bleeding under the skin, spread through fleas on rats and person-to-person contact.
Peasant Uprisings
Rebellions by peasants in response to poor harvests, famine, and social inequality, such as the Jacquerie peasant uprising in 1358 and the English Peasants’ Revolt in 1381.
Cultural Forms
Essential institutions and cultural developments that emerged during the later Middle Ages in response to events like the plague, wars, and famine, shaping European society.
Urban Conditions
Dense medieval cities provided ideal environments for the spread of diseases like the Black Death, leading to significant population losses in places like Florence and Vienna.
Prevention Methods
Various attempts to prevent the spread of the plague, including burning incense, using strong-smelling herbs, inducing vomiting, sweating, and bloodletting, as well as beliefs in magical practices like cryptograms.
Plague
A highly contagious and deadly disease that spread through Europe in the mid-1300s, causing widespread death and societal upheaval.
Flagellants
People who believed that the plague was a punishment from God for sin and sought to atone for it by whipping themselves.
Dance of Death
A concept depicted in literature and art during the plague years, symbolizing mortality and the universality of death.
Hundred Years’ War
A long conflict between England and France from 1337 to 1453, characterized by political, economic, and territorial disputes.
Aquitaine
A region in Southern France that was a major point of contention between England and France during the Hundred Years’ War.
Salic Law
A law that barred women and their descendants from inheriting the French throne, leading to disputes over succession during the Hundred Years’ War.
Longbowmen
Skilled English archers who played a crucial role in the military victories of the English forces during the Hundred Years’ War.
Joan of Arc
A peasant girl who led the French to victory during the Hundred Years’ War, claiming to have received divine guidance in battle.
Joan of Arc
A French heroine who claimed to have received visions from saints, led the French army to several victories against the English during the Hundred Years' War, and was later captured and executed.
Charles VII
The uncrowned King of France who was convinced by Joan of Arc to be crowned and supported her in leading the French army against the English.
Orleans
A city in France that was besieged by the English during the Hundred Years' War but was relieved by Joan of Arc's leadership and the French army.
Great Schism
A period from 1378 to 1417 when there were rival claimants to the papacy, leading to a division in church leadership.
Babylonian Captivity
The period from 1309 to 1376 when the popes resided in Avignon, France, instead of Rome, leading to a loss of authority and criticism of the church.
Urban VI
A pope who aimed for church reform but faced opposition, leading to the Great Schism with the election of Clement VII and the division of Christianity.
Hussite Revolution
A movement in Bohemia from 1415 to 1436 that sought church reform and greater religious freedom, leading to conflicts with the Catholic Church.
William of Occam
A Franciscan friar who criticized the papacy during the Babylonian Captivity and argued for limited government power and the separation of church and state.
Marsiglio of Padua
A political thinker who wrote "Defensor Pacis" and advocated for a state separate from the church, leading to his excommunication for heresy.
John Wyclif
An English theologian who believed in the authority of scriptures over papal power, urged church reform, and translated the Bible into English.
Lollards
Followers of John Wyclif who allowed women to preach and played a significant role in the movement.
Jan Hus
A figure who built on Wyclif's ideas, denied Papal authority, and gained many followers in Bohemia, leading to the Hussite church.
Confraternities
Voluntary lay groups organized by occupation, devotional preference, neighborhood, or charitable activity in the 13th century.
Great Schism
A split within the Catholic Church that led to the existence of three popes at one point, resolved by the Council of Constance in the early 15th century.
Lay Piety and Mysticism
The development of personal forms of piety by laypeople in response to the weakened spiritual mystique of the clergy in the 14th century.
Peasant Revolts
Uprisings by peasants in response to exploitation, high taxes, and social unrest, such as the English Peasants' Revolt in 1381.
Urban Conflicts
Conflicts and revolts in urban areas, often involving worker issues, guild conflicts, and the impact of capitalist investments on traditional production systems.
Prostitution
The act of engaging in sexual activity in exchange for payment, which was common in urban areas and often restricted by laws and regulations.
Seduction and Rape
The coercive act of forcing sexual activity upon another person, with varying legal and social consequences depending on the time period and location.
Same-sex relationships
Relationships between individuals of the same gender, which were viewed differently over time and across cultures, with varying levels of acceptance and legal consequences.
Fur-Collar Crime
Crimes committed by the upper class against the lower class, often involving violence and fraud, which led to social unrest and cultural expressions like the ballads of Robin Hood.
Ethnic tensions and restrictions
Conflicts and discriminatory practices based on ethnic differences, such as legal dualism, restrictions on intermarriage, and efforts to maintain ethnic purity through laws like the Statute of Kilkenny.
Blood
The concept of hereditary ethnicity and social status, where people were categorized based on their lineage, traditions, and perceived purity of blood, influencing social interactions and legal rights.
Literacy and Vernacular Literature
The development of ethnic identities and cultural expressions through the use of local languages, as seen in masterpieces like Dante's Divine Comedy and Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, which reflected the social dynamics and tensions of their time.
Lay literacy
The penetration of laymen into higher positions of governmental administration, indicating a rise in literacy among the common people.
Convent schools
Institutions where upper-class daughters were sent to learn singing, religion, needlework, household management, and basic reading and writing skills.
Printing press
Invented by craftsmen in response to the increased demand for reading material in the 15th century, contributing to a more literate culture.
Great Famine
A severe famine lasting from 1315 to 1322 in Europe, triggered by a period of climate change.
Black Death
The plague that struck Europe in 1347, causing the death of approximately one-third of the population.
Flagellants
Individuals who believed the Black Death was a punishment from God for sin and practiced self-flagellation as penance.
Hundred Years' War
A prolonged conflict between England and France from 1337 to 1453 with significant political and economic consequences.
Babylonian Captivity
The period from 1309 to 1376 when the popes resided in Avignon instead of Rome, akin to the Hebrews' captivity in Babylon.
Great Schism
The split in church leadership from 1378 to 1417, resulting in the presence of two, then three popes.
French Invasion
The period when Italy became a battleground for foreign armies due to the interest of the Holy Roman Empire and France, leading to continual warfare and conflicts known as the Habsburg-Valois wars.
Habsburg-Valois Wars
Conflicts in Italy between the Holy Roman Empire and France, involving the German and French dynasties, which caused Italian cities to suffer from ongoing warfare.
Humanism
A program of study emphasizing the critical examination of Latin and Greek literature with the goal of understanding human nature, advocated by Italian thinkers during the Renaissance.
Giorgio Vasari
An Italian artist and writer who was the first to use the term "Renaissance" in print, known for his work "The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects."
Francesco Petrarch
An Italian scholar who searched for classic Latin manuscripts and believed in the recovery of ancient texts to bring about a new golden age, contributing to the Renaissance.
Virtu
The quality of being able to shape the world according to one's own will, a concept explored by Renaissance thinkers who believed in individual excellence and achievement.
Marsilio Ficino
A scholar patronized by the Medici family in Florence, known for his work on Greek philosophy and establishing the "Platonic Academy" for elite education.
Leonardo da Vinci
A Renaissance genius known for his diverse talents in art, science, and invention, creating masterpieces like the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.
Humanist Education
Renaissance humanists recommended a course of study focusing on the classics, providing practical training for future leaders in various fields like politics, law, and art.
Niccolo Machiavelli
An Italian writer and philosopher known for his work "The Prince," which explores political leadership and the complexities of governance, reflecting the political turmoil of his time.
Machiavellian
Cunning and ruthless, derived from the political philosophy of Niccolò Machiavelli advocating the use of force and cruelty if necessary.
Cesare Borgia
Son of Pope Alexander VI, known for using ruthlessness and his father's power to build his own state in central Italy.
The Prince
A political treatise by Machiavelli advocating that governments should be judged on their ability to provide security, order, and safety.
Humanism
A cultural and intellectual movement emphasizing the study of classical literature and a focus on human values, dignity, and capabilities.
Christian Humanism
Northern humanists who interpreted Italian humanist ideas through the lens of their religious traditions, combining classical virtues with Christian values.
Thomas More
A lawyer and government official who wrote "Utopia," a work describing an ideal society beyond Europe with a focus on education and government problem-solving.
Desiderius Erasmus
A Dutch humanist known for works like "The Praise of Folly" and advocating for education in the Bible and classics as a means of reform.
Printing Press
Invented by Johann Gutenberg in 1440, revolutionizing the spread of ideas by allowing for mass production of books and increasing literacy rates.
Patronage
The support or sponsorship of artists and intellectuals by wealthy individuals or institutions, often leading to the creation of artistic masterpieces.
Renaissance Art
Characterized by a revival of classical themes, humanism, and patronage, leading to a flourishing of creativity in painting, architecture, and sculpture.
Individual portrait
A distinct artistic genre that emerged during the Renaissance, characterized by a more realistic approach preferred by both artists and patrons.
Giotto
A Florentine painter who led the way to realism in art during the Renaissance.
Perspective
A technique pioneered by artists like Piero della Francesca and Andrea Mantegna, which enhanced the realism of paintings by creating depth and dimension.
Classical figure
Revived by sculptor Donatello during the Renaissance, bringing back elements of classical art.
Mannerism
A new artistic style developed by artists like Titian during the Renaissance, characterized by distorted figures, exaggerated muscles, and heightened colors to express emotion or drama.
Villa Capra
An architectural masterpiece constructed by Andrea Palladio, demonstrating humanistic ideals of perfection and balance during the Renaissance.
Artistic genius
The Renaissance notion that artists were unique personalities whose creations transcended traditions, rules, and theories.
Embroidery
An art form that became more naturalistic and complex during the Renaissance, often considered a minor art compared to painting and sculpture.
Social hierarchies
Structures in Renaissance Europe that were influenced by divisions based on race, class, and gender, creating new hierarchies beyond those of the Middle Ages.
Slave trade
Reinforced negative preconceptions about the inferiority of black Africans in Renaissance Europe, with slaves supporting various sectors of the economy and society.
Misogynist
A person who holds prejudice against women, often manifesting in critiques or discrimination.
Christine de Pizan
The first female writer known to have made a living from her writing, who defended women's rights and questioned their secondary status.
Printing Press Effect
The impact of the printing press on society, such as increasing popular interest in debates and discussions.
Proper Wife
Metaphorical representations like a snail or tortoise that never left the house, symbolizing the ideal of a woman's role in the 16th century.
Female Rulers
Women who ruled or served as advisors to child-kings in countries like Spain, England, Scotland, and France, sparking debates about their roles and capabilities.
Concordat of Bologna
A treaty in 1516 between King Francis I of France and Pope Leo X, which outlined agreements on church and state powers, giving the French rulers influence over church officials in the kingdom.
Court of Star Chamber
Established by Henry VII in England, a court known for its secretive sessions, use of torture, and deviation from common-law precedents to reduce aristocratic troublemaking.
Conversos
Term for Jews or Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula who converted to Christianity, often facing resentment and discrimination despite holding prominent positions in society.
Inquisition
A religious tribunal established to identify and punish individuals who were suspected of secretly adhering to Jewish beliefs or practices, particularly targeting conversos in Spain.
Purity of Blood Laws
Laws in Spain that required individuals to have pure Christian blood to attain noble status, contributing to the development of anti-Semitic sentiments and discrimination.
Renaissance
A French word meaning “rebirth”, used to describe the rebirth of the culture of classical antiquity in Italy during the 14th and 15th centuries.
Patronage
Financial support of writers and artists by cities, groups, and individuals, often to produce specific works in specific styles.
Communes
Sworn associations of free men in Italian cities led by merchant guilds.
The Popolo
Disenfranchised common people in Italian cities who resented their exclusion from power.
Signori
Government by one-man rule in Italian cities such as Milan, also refers to these rulers.
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